Biodegradable Composites for Packaging Applications

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Aim and Scope
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Introduction to Biodegradable Polymers
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Market of Biodegradable Polymers
1.3 Non-Degradable and Biodegradable Polymers
1.4 Need of Biodegradable Plastics
1.5 Factors Affecting Processing Parameters and Optimization
1.6 Latest Advancements
1.7 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers
1.8 Summary
References
Chapter 2 Bio-Based Materials for Food Packaging Applications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Need for Biodegradable Packaging Materials
2.3 Biopolymers and Their Classifications
2.3.1 Biomass-Derived Biopolymers
2.3.1.1 Polysaccharide-Derived Polymers
2.3.1.2 Proteins
2.3.2 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
2.3.2.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA )
2.3.2.2 Polyglycolic Acid (PGA)
2.3.2.3 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
2.3.2.4 Polycaprolactone (PCL )
2.3.3 Microbially Derived Polymers
2.3.3.1 Bacterial Cellulose
2.3.3.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs )
2.4 Different Types of Biodegradable Packaging Materials
2.4.1 Biodegradable Gel
2.4.2 Biodegradable Bags and Pouches
2.4.3 Biodegradable Films and Trays
2.5 Nanotechnology and Packaging Science
2.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 3 Processing of Biodegradable Composites
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Processing Techniques
3.2.1 Solution Processing
3.2.1.1 Solution Casting
3.2.1.2 Electrospinning
3.2.1.3 Dry Spinning
3.2.1.4 Wet Spinning
3.2.1.5 Gel Spinning
3.2.1.6 Coating
3.2.1.7 Freeze-Drying
3.2.2 Melt Processing
3.2.2.1 Hygroscopic Properties
3.2.2.2 Granule Characteristics
3.2.2.3 Melt Mixing and Roll Milling
3.2.2.4 Extrusion
3.2.2.5 Moulding
3.2.2.6 Thermoforming
3.2.2.7 Hot Isostatic Pressing
3.2.2.8 Melt Drawing
3.2.3 Updated Processing Techniques
3.2.3.1 In Situ Polymerization
3.2.3.2 Master Batch Dilution Technique
3.2.3.3 3D Printing
3.3 Challenges in Biodegradable Composites Processing
3.4 Future Prospects of Biodegradable Composite Processing
3.5 Summary
References
Chapter 4 Challenges and Perspectives of Biodegradable Composites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
4.3 Prospects of Biocomposites and Their Processing
4.3.1 Recent Developments in Biocomposites
4.3.2 Recent Developments in Porous/Cellular Biocomposite Foams/Scaffolds
4.3.3 Processing Methods of Biocomposites and Biocomposite Foams
4.3.3.1 Processing of Biocomposites
4.3.3.2 Processing of Cellular Biocomposite Foams
4.3.4 Challenges in Biopolymer Processing
4.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5 A Comprehensive Study of Biodegradable Composites for Food Packaging Applications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Biodegradable Composites
5.3 Production of Biodegradable Composites
5.4 Biopolymers and Their Potential as Packaging Material
5.4.1 Starch-Based Biopolymers
5.4.2 Protein-Based Biopolymers
5.4.2.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA )
5.4.2.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs )
5.5 Properties of Biopolymers
5.6 Biodegradation of Biopolymers
5.7 Biodegradation Test
5.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Biodegradable Composites for Commodities Packaging Applications and Toxicity
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Composites Materials and Toxicity
6.2.1 Synthetic Composite Materials and Related Toxicity
6.2.2 Biocomposite Materials and Related Toxicity
6.2.2.1 Chitosan Composite Materials
6.2.2.2 Cellulose Composites
6.2.2.3 Cellulose-Chitosan Composite Materials
6.2.2.4 Chitosan-Collagen Composite Materials
6.2.3 Micro-/Nanocomposites for Commodities Packaging: an Emerging Trend
6.2.4 Essential Oil-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging
6.3 Regulatory Challenges and Toxicity Assessment of Food Packaging Biocomposites
6.4 Conclusions
6.5 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 7 Biodegradable Composites for Conductive and Sensor Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biodegradable Polymers as Matrices in a Biodegradable Composite
7.2.1 Natural Biodegradable Polymers
7.2.2 Polysaccharides
7.2.2.1 Starch
7.2.2.2 Cellulose
7.2.2.3 Alginate
7.2.2.4 Proteins
7.2.2.5 Polyhydroxyalkonates
7.2.3 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
7.3 Sensors
7.3.1 Biodegradable Composites as Sensors for Environmental Applications
7.3.2 Biodegradable Composites as Sensors for Medical Applications
7.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 8 Polymers for Innovative Packaging Applications
8.1 Introduction to Packaging
8.1.1 Development of Biopolymers
8.2 Timeline of Plastics
8.2.1 Parkesine
8.2.2 Celluloid
8.2.3 Bakelite - Formaldehyde Resins
8.2.4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
8.2.5 Cellophane
8.2.6 Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
8.2.7 Polyethylene (PE)
8.2.8 Polyurethane (PUR)
8.2.9 Polystyrene (PS)
8.2.10 Polypropylene (PP)
8.3 Biopolymers
8.3.1 Classification of Biopolymers
8.3.2 Primary Phase
8.3.3 Secondary Phase
8.3.4 Third Phase
8.4 Advantages and Drawbacks of Bioplastics
8.5 Bioplastic Extracted/Isolated Directly from Biomass
8.5.1 Cellulose
8.5.2 Cellulose Derivatives
8.5.3 Starch
8.5.4 Soy Proteins
8.5.5 Chitin and Chitosan
8.5.6 Lignin
8.5.7 Collagen
8.5.8 Gelatin
8.5.9 Alginate
8.5.10 Pectin
8.5.11 Other Plant Proteins
8.5.12 Poly-Beta-Hydroxyalkanoates (PHB)
8.5.13 Polylactic Acid (PLA) Plastics
8.6 Bioplastic from Uneatable Substances
8.6.1 Pomegranate Peel
8.6.2 Orange Peel
8.7 Polymers Produced by Conventional Chemical Synthesis of Bio-Monomers
8.7.1 Polyglycolide (PGA)
8.7.2 Polycaprolactone (PCL )
8.7.3 Polybutylene succinate (PBS)
8.7.4 Poly(p-dioxanone) (PPDO)
8.7.5 Polyanhydrides
8.8 Polymers Obtained Directly from Natural or Genetically Modified Organisms
8.9 Properties of Biodegradable Materials
8.9.1 Barrier Properties
8.9.2 Oxygen Scavengers/Absorbers
8.9.3 Moisture Scavengers/Absorbers
8.9.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO[sub(2)] ) Scavengers/Emitters
8.9.5 Flavour and Odour Absorbers or Releasers
8.9.6 Ethylene Absorbers and Adsorbers
8.9.7 Mechanical Properties
8.10 Current Restrictions
8.10.1 Bioactive Packaging
8.10.2 Nano-Packaging
8.10.3 Responsive Packaging
8.10.4 Edible Packaging
8.11 Biodegradation and Composting
8.11.1 The Biodegradation Polymer Mechanism
8.12 Biodegradable Plastic
8.13 Compostable Plastics
8.14 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers
8.14.1 Applications in Medicine and Pharmacy
8.14.2 Applications in Stuffing
8.14.3 Applications in Agriculture
8.14.4 Applications in Other Fields
8.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio-Packaging
8.16 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9 Edible Film and Coating for Food Packaging
9.1 Introduction
9.2 History and Background
9.2.1 Characteristics
9.3 Classification
9.3.1 Polysaccharide-Based Edible Films and Coatings
9.3.2 Protein-Based Edible Films and Coatings
9.3.3 Lipid-Based Edible Films and Coatings
9.3.4 Composite Edible Films and Coatings
9.4 Components of Edible Films
9.4.1 Film-Forming Materials
9.4.2 Plasticizers
9.4.3 Additives
9.5 Film Formation Process and Mechanism
9.6 Need for Edible Films and Coatings/Functions of Edible Films and Coatings/Advantages
9.6.1 Environmental Safety and Edibility
9.6.2 Protection from Physical and Mechanical Damage
9.6.3 Barrier to Migration of Gases
9.6.3.1 Carriers of Active Substances
9.6.3.2 Food Quality
9.6.4 Microbial Safety and Shelf Life
9.6.5 Convenience
9.6.6 Process-Aiding Functions
9.7 Applications in Various Food Groups
9.7.1 Meat and Poultry Products
9.7.2 Fish Products
9.7.3 Fresh Produce
9.7.4 Fruits
9.7.5 Vegetables
9.7.6 Dairy Products
9.7.7 Bakery and Confectionary Products
9.8 Recent Advances/Current Research
9.8.1 Carriers of Bioactive Compounds
9.8.2 Flavor Encapsulation
9.8.3 Carrier of Probiotics
9.9 Challenges and Opportunities
9.9.1 Regulations
9.9.2 Feasibility of Commercialized Systems
9.9.3 Consumer Acceptance
9.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10 Smart and Intelligent Packaging Based on Biodegradable Composites
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biodegradable Polymers/Composites
10.3 Conductivity of Biodegradable Polymers
10.4 Biodegradable/Conductive Polymer Blends
10.5 Colorimetric pH Sensors Using Dyes
10.6 Sensors in Food Packaging
10.7 Printed Electronics
10.7.1 Conductive Packaging Films
10.7.2 Conductive Inks
10.7.3 Sensors and Smart Labels
10.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11 Migration Studies of Biodegradable Composites
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biodegradable Green Composites
11.3 Natural Rubber Latex
11.3.1 Latex Manufacturing Process
11.3.2 Global Legislation for Rubber Materials in Contact with Food
11.3.3 Rubber and Chemical Migration into Food
11.4 Biopolymer Composites
11.5 Migration Behaviour of Lubricants in Polypropylene Composites
11.6 Food Simulants
11.7 No Migration
11.8 Principal Issues in Global Food Contact: Indian Perspective
11.8.1 The Indian Subcontinent: A Study in Contrast
11.8.2 Food Contact Legislation
11.8.3 Indian Standards for Direct Food Contact
11.8.4 Methods of Analysis and Determination of Specific and Overall Migration Limits
11.8.5 Acceptability Criteria
11.8.6 Future
11.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12 Degradation Studies of Biodegradable Composites
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Biopolymers
12.1.2 Biopolymers from Petro-Sources
12.1.2.1 Cellulose Based
12.1.2.2 Protein Based
12.1.2.3 Starch Based
12.1.2.4 CO[sub(2)] Based
12.1.3 Polymers and Surroundings
12.1.4 Polymer Impact on Environment
12.1.4.1 By Ocean
12.1.4.2 By Land
12.1.4.3 By Industries
12.1.4.4 By Landfills
12.1.4.5 Sewage Debris
12.1.5 Environmental Circumstances
12.1.6 Factors Affecting Polymer Degradation Characteristics
12.2 Degradation of Polymers
12.2.1 Biological Degradation
12.2.1.1 Polymer Biodegradation Mechanism
12.2.1.2 Aerobic Biodegradation
12.2.1.3 Anaerobic Biodegradation
12.2.1.4 Principles in Testing Biodegradable Polymers
12.2.1.5 Soil Burial Degradation Mechanism
12.2.1.6 Water Degradation
12.2.2 Chemical Degradation
12.2.3 Thermal Degradation
12.2.3.1 Steps of Thermal Degradation
12.2.3.2 Pyrolysis
12.2.4 Weather Degradation
12.2.4.1 Weathering Mechanism
12.2.5 Mechanical Degradation
12.2.5.1 Regrinding
12.2.5.2 Adhesive Pressing
12.2.5.3 Compression Moulding
12.2.5.4 Injection Moulding
12.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Rheological Studies of Biodegradable Composites
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Rheology and Biodegradable Composites
13.3 Instrumentation of Different Flowability Investigations
13.3.1 Rheometer
13.3.1.1 Shearing Geometries
13.3.2 Viscometer
13.4 Rheology Studies of Biodegradable Composites
13.4.1 Solution Viscosity
13.4.2 Melt Rheology
13.4.2.1 Melt Flow Properties of Composites
13.4.2.2 Dispersion of Reinforcement
13.4.2.3 Cross-linking, Plasticizing Effect and Compatibility Investigation
13.4.3 Magnetorheological Fluids (MRF)
13.4.4 Rheological Model
13.4.4.1 Power-Law Model
13.4.4.2 Herschel-Bulkley (HB) Model
13.4.4.3 Casson Model
13.5 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 14 Active Biodegradable Composites for Packaging Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Natural Pigments
14.3 Plant Extracts
14.4 Essential Oils and Enzymes
14.5 Nanoparticles
14.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15 Microplastic and Nanoplastic Pollution in Water Bodies from Conventional Packaging Materials: Need to Search for Biodegradable Polymers
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Occurrence of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Environment
15.3 Sources, Pathways and Sink of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Water Bodies
15.3.1 Microplastics
15.3.2 Nanoplastics
15.4 Effects of MP and NP on Aquatic Ecosystem and Human Life
15.5 Development of Various Technologies for the Removal of MP and NP from Water
15.6 Worldwide Regulations as a Sustainable Development Goal
15.7 Solution to Plastic Packaging Materials
15.7.1 Starch
15.7.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
15.7.3 Polycaprolactone (PCL )
15.7.4 Polyhydroxybutyrate/Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHB/PHA)
15.7.5 Additives Used to Improve Overall Properties of Biodegradable Materials
15.7.5.1 Glycerol
15.7.5.2 Cellulose
15.7.5.3 Gelatin
15.7.5.4 Chitosan
15.7.5.5 Citric Acid
15.7.6 Techniques Used to Manufacture Biodegradable Composite
15.7.6.1 Casting Evaporation Approach
15.7.6.2 Foaming Processing
15.7.6.3 Extrusion Processing
15.7.6.4 Electrospinning
15.7.6.5 3D Printing
15.7.6.6 Reactive Extrusion
15.7.6.7 Nanotechnology
15.8 Challenges Faced in Biodegradable Packaging
15.8.1 Mechanical Properties
15.8.2 Thermal Properties
15.8.3 Barrier Properties
15.8.4 Biodegradability
15.9 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Chapter 16 Developments in Food Packaging for Enhancing Food Quality and Safety
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Novel Packaging Technologies
16.2.1 Active Packaging
16.2.2 Mechanism of Active Packaging
16.2.3 Types of Active Substances
16.3 Intelligent Packaging
16.3.1 Smart Package Devices
16.3.1.1 Barcodes
16.3.1.2 Radio Frequency Identification Tags
16.3.1.3 Time-Temperature Indicators
16.3.1.4 Gas Indicators
16.3.1.5 Freshness Indicators
16.3.2 Bioactive Packaging
16.4 Effect of Novel Technologies on Packaging of Food
16.5 Conclusions
16.6 Future Trends
References
Index