Bio-Clean Energy Technologies, Volume 2

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Green Energy Solution to Combat Global Warming
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Need for Green Energy
1.3 Biomass as Potential Feedstock for Bioenergy Generation
1.3.1 Microorganism on Bioenergy Generation
1.4 Scale-up Strategies for Microbial Biofuel Generation
1.5 Future Perspective of Green Energy Generation from Microorganism
1.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Renewable Biofuels: Sources and Types
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of Renewable Biofuels
2.2.1 Starch or Sugars
2.2.2 Oil Crops
2.2.3 Energy Crops
2.2.3.1 Perennial Grasses
2.2.3.2 Short-Rotation Wood Crops
2.2.3.3 Jatropha
2.2.4 Agricultural and Forestry Residues
2.2.5 Industrial and Municipal Waste
2.2.6 Microalgae
2.3 Types of Renewable Biofuels
2.3.1 Bioethanol
2.3.2 Biodiesel
2.3.3 Biobutanol
2.3.4 Biogas
2.3.5 Microalgal Biofuel
2.3.5.1 Microalgal Biodiesel
2.3.5.2 Microalgal Biohydrogen
2.3.5.3 Microalgal Bioethanol
2.3.5.4 Microalgal Biomethanol
2.4 Future of Biofuels
2.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Renewable Biofuel Resources: Introduction, Production Technologies, Challenges, and Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biofuels
3.2.1 Classification of Biofuel
3.2.1.1 First-Generation Biofuels
3.2.1.2 Second-Generation Biofuel
3.2.1.3 Third-Generation Biofuel
3.2.1.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuel
3.3 Sources of Biofuel and Bioenergy
3.3.1 Nonedible Vegetable Oils
3.3.2 Edible Vegetable Oils
3.3.3 Monocot Plant
3.3.4 Algae
3.3.5 Animal Fat
3.4 Biofuel Production Technologies
3.4.1 Pyrolysis
3.4.2 Microemulsification
3.4.3 Dilution/Blending
3.4.4 Transesterification
3.4.4.1 Homogeneous Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification
3.4.4.2 Homogeneous Alkaline-Catalyzed Transesterification
3.4.4.3 Heterogeneous-Catalyzed Transesterification
3.4.4.4 Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterification
3.4.4.5 Nanocatalyzed Transesterification
3.4.4.6 Transesterification Using Ionic Liquids as Catalysts
3.5 Applications of Biofuels
3.5.1 Transportation
3.5.2 Power Generation
3.5.3 Provide or Generate Heat
3.5.4 Charging Electronics
3.5.5 Clean Oil Spills and Grease
3.6 Advantages of Biofuels
3.6.1 Economic Fuel with Cost-Benefits
3.6.2 High-Quality Engine Performance
3.6.3 Biofuel Refineries Are Cleaner
3.6.4 Easily Available Resources
3.6.5 Reduces Greenhouse Gases
3.6.6 Economic Security
3.6.7 Reduce Foreign Oil Dependence
3.6.8 Less Pollution
3.6.9 Health Benefits
3.7 Challenges of Biofuels
3.8 Environmental Effect of Biofuels
3.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Conversion of Biogas Generated from Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste to Electricity Using Internal Combustion Engi...
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Food Waste
4.2.1 Characteristics of Food Waste
4.2.2 Treatment Options Available for Food Waste
4.2.2.1 Landfilling of Food Waste
4.2.2.2 Incineration
4.2.2.3 Anaerobic Digestion
4.2.3 Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste and Concomitant Energy Recovery
4.2.3.1 Single-Stage Anaerobic Digestion
4.2.3.2 Two-Stage Anaerobic Digestion
4.2.3.3 Parameters Affecting the Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste
4.2.3.3.1 pH and VFA
4.2.3.3.2 C/N Ratio
4.2.3.3.3 Micronutrients
4.2.4 Co-Digestion of Food Waste
4.2.5 Biogas Production from Food Waste
4.3 Methane Purification from Biogas Generated from Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste
4.4 Internal Combustion Engine for Power Generation from Biogas
4.4.1 Engine Operation
4.4.2 Fuel Flexibility
4.4.3 Combustion of Methane
4.4.4 Converting Technologies
4.4.5 Electricity Generation
4.5 Thermocatalytic Conversion of Biogas to Hydrogen
4.5.1 Reforming Strategies
4.5.2 H2 Enrichment by WGS Route
4.5.3 CO Removal from Preferential CO Oxidation Under H2-Rich Conditions
4.5.4 CO2 Capture and Recycle
4.5.5 CO2 Methanation
4.6 Conversion of Hydrogen to Electricity Using Fuel Cell
4.6.1 Fuel Cells and Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
4.6.1.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
4.6.1.2 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)
4.6.1.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)
4.6.1.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)
4.6.1.5 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)
4.6.2 Applications of PEMFC
4.6.3 Mechanism and Chemistry of Hydrogen Fuel Cell
4.6.3.1 Single Fuel Cell and Components
4.6.3.2 Cell Voltage and Efficiency
4.6.4 Multi-Stack Hydrogen Fuel Cell and Electricity
4.6.5 Drawbacks and Outlooks
4.7 Smart Distribution of Alternator Fuel Cell Electricity to Satisfy Demand Response Management
4.7.1 Integration of Alternator and Fuel Cell Power Circuits
4.7.2 Smart Scheduling and Power Distribution
4.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Biofilm-Based Production of Biomethane
5.1 Introduction
5.2 What Is Biofilm?
5.3 Production of Biohydrogen
5.4 Hydrogen Injection for Enhanced Hydrogenotrophic Methanogenesis
5.5 Challenges Encountered During Hydrogen-Assisted Biogas Upgrading
5.6 Techniques Adopted to Solve These Challenges
5.7 Microbial Electrical and Membrane Electrolysis-Assisted In Situ Biogas Upgrading
5.8 Additives for Enhanced Hydrogenotrophic Methanogenesis
5.9 Role of Biofilms in Biomethane Production
5.10 Microorganisms Involved in Methane Production
5.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Microbial Electrochemical Systems: Recent Advancements and Future Prospects
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of MES
6.2.1 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC)
6.2.2 Microbial Electrolytic Cells (MEC)
6.2.3 Enzymatic Fuel Cells (EFC)
6.2.4 Microbial Desalination Cells (MDC)
6.2.5 Microbial Solar Cells (MSC)
6.2.6 Plant Microbial Fuel Cells (PMFCs)
6.2.7 Photobioreactor Microbial Solar Cells
6.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: A Brief Review of Waste Generation in India and Biofuel Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 MSW Production in India
7.1.2 Food Waste
7.1.3 Agricultural Waste
7.1.4 Predictions on Future Waste Growth
7.2 Energy Demand and Environmental Impact
7.3 Biofuels
7.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels
7.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
7.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
7.3.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuels
7.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Biohydrogen Production by Immobilized Microbes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of Microorganisms Used in Immobilization
8.3 Mechanism of Immobilization
8.3.1 Adsorption
8.3.2 Encapsulation
8.4 Nature of the Carrier
8.5 Molecular Basis of Production of Biohydrogen
8.6 Hydrogenases
8.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Conventional Liquid Biofuels
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Why Biofuels?
9.2 Classification of Biofuels
9.3 Different Generations of Liquid Biofuels
9.3.1 First-Generation Liquid Biofuels
9.3.2 The Second-Generation Liquid Biofuels
9.3.2.1 The ``Thermo´´ Pathway
9.3.2.2 The ``Bio´´ Pathway
9.3.3 The Third-Generation Liquid Biofuels
9.4 Biochemical Liquid Fuels
9.4.1 Bioethanol
9.4.2 Biodiesel
9.4.2.1 Blends
9.4.2.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks
9.4.3 Biobutanol
9.4.4 Bioethers
9.5 Challenges and Barriers
9.5.1 The ``Food Versus Fuel´´ Debate
9.5.2 Impact on Woman and Water Resources
9.5.3 Impact on Biodiversity
9.6 Research and Development
9.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Sustainability of Bioethanol Production
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Classification of Bioethanol Based on Material Used for their Production
10.2.1 First-Generation Bioethanol
10.2.2 Second-Generation Bioethanol
10.2.3 Third-Generation Bioethanol
10.3 Raw Material for Bioethanol Production
10.3.1 Energy Crops
10.3.2 Lignocellulose-Containing Plant Residues
10.3.3 Microalgae
10.4 Steps Involved in Bioethanol Production Process
10.4.1 Milling
10.4.2 Pretreatment of Raw Material for Bioethanol Production
10.4.2.1 Sugar-Containing Feedstock
10.4.2.2 Raw Materials that Contain Starch
10.4.2.3 Raw Material Containing Algae
10.4.2.4 Raw Materials that Contain Lignocellulose
10.4.3 Fermentation of the Obtained Sugar by Microbes
10.4.4 Distillation and Rectification
10.4.5 Drying
10.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 11: Biofuels from Algae
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Characteristics of Algae
11.2.1 The Superiority of Algae Over Other Microorganisms for Biofuel Production
11.2.2 Bioethanol
11.2.2.1 Bioethanol Feedstocks
11.2.2.2 Algal Feedstock for Bioethanol Production
11.2.2.3 Ethanol Production from Algal Biomass
11.2.2.4 Enzymes for Hydrolysis of Algal Biomass
11.2.3 Biodiesel
11.2.3.1 Biodiesel Feedstocks
11.2.3.2 Algal Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
11.2.3.3 Production of Diesel from Algal Biomass
11.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Oil from Algae
11.4 Bioreactors for Biofuel Production
11.5 Algal Cultivation Systems
11.5.1 Open Ponds
11.5.2 Raceways
11.5.3 Closed Ponds
11.5.4 Tubular PBR
11.6 Biogas from Algae
11.7 Microalgal Fuel Cell
11.8 Economic and Environmental Aspects of Algal Biofuels
References
Chapter 12: Bioethanol Production from Marine Algae: A Novel Approach to Curb Global Warming
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Bioethanol as an Energy Source
12.3 Mechanism of Bioethanol Production Using Microalgae
12.3.1 Microalgae as a Feedstock
12.3.1.1 Culturing Condition of Algae
12.3.1.2 Classification of Microalgae and their Effectiveness in Bioethanol Production
12.3.1.2.1 Red Microalgae
12.3.1.2.2 Green Microalgae
12.3.1.2.3 Brown Microalgae
12.4 Pretreatment Process
12.5 Hydrolysis of Microalgae
12.5.1 Acid Hydrolysis
12.5.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
12.5.2.1 Factors Limiting the Enzymatic Hydrolysis
12.5.3 Catalyst-Dependent Hydrolysis
12.6 Chemical Pretreatment of Microalgae
12.7 Pretreatment of Biomass with Acid Catalyst
12.8 Recent Studies and Research
12.9 Bioethanol Conversion Pathway
12.10 Bioethanol Conversion Technology
12.10.1 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)
12.10.2 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)
12.10.3 Simultaneous Saccharification and Co-Fermentation (SSCF)
12.11 Factors Affecting Bioethanol Fermentation
12.12 Future Aspect
12.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Biofilms for Biofuel Production
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Quorum Sensing
13.3 Biofilm Formation
13.4 Biofuel Production by Biofilm Optimization
13.4.1 Natural Consortia
13.4.2 Genetically Engineered Consortia
13.5 Modelling and Regulating Biofuel Consortia
13.5.1 Sequential Utilization
13.5.2 Co-Utilization of Symbiosis
13.5.3 Substrate Transformation
13.5.4 Transformation of Products
13.6 Enhanced Biofuel Production in Algal Biofilm Bioreactor
13.6.1 Biohydrogen Production
13.6.2 Dark Fermentation in Biohydrogen Production
13.7 Biodiesel Production
13.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Enzyme Technology in Biofuel Production
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sources of Biofuel
14.2.1 Oil Crops
14.2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
14.2.3 Waste from Solid
14.2.4 Algae
14.3 Classification of Biofuels
14.4 Enzymes Used in Biofuel Production
14.5 Biodiesel Production
14.5.1 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil
14.5.2 Biodiesel Production from Edible Oils
14.5.3 Biodiesel Production from Nonedible Sources
14.5.4 Biodiesel Production from Algae
14.6 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
14.6.1 Comparison of Efficiency of Enzymes in Biofuel Production
14.7 Potential Opportunities to Increase Enzyme Production Technology
14.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Immobilized Lipase for Industrial Biodiesel Production
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Historical Background
15.1.2 Advantages of Using Biodiesel
15.1.3 Properties of Biodiesel
15.1.3.1 Antifoaming
15.1.3.2 Cetane Number
15.1.3.3 Amount of Oxygen Present
15.1.3.4 Cold Flow Properties
15.1.3.5 Flash Point and Viscosity
15.1.3.6 Lubrification
15.2 Biodiesel Production
15.2.1 Biodiesel Production Techniques
15.2.1.1 Direct Use and Blending of Oils
15.2.1.2 Microemulsion of Oils
15.2.1.3 Pyrolysis of Oils (Thermal Cracking)
15.2.1.4 Transesterification of Oils
15.3 Catalytic Biodiesel Production
15.3.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
15.3.1.1 Homogeneous Base Catalytic Transesterification
15.3.1.2 Homogeneous Acid Catalytic Transesterification
15.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalytic Transesterification
15.3.2.1 Heterogeneous Solid-Base Catalytic Transesterification
15.3.2.2 Heterogeneous Solid-Acid Catalytic Transesterification
15.4 Feedstocks Used in Transesterification
15.5 Modern Catalysts for Biodiesel Production
15.5.1 Biocatalytic Transesterification
15.6 Lipase
15.6.1 Sources of Lipase
15.6.2 Notable Properties of Lipases
15.6.3 Immobilized Lipase
15.6.4 Enzyme Immobilization Methods
15.6.4.1 Physical Methods
15.6.4.1.1 Adsorption
15.6.4.1.2 Entrapment
15.6.4.1.3 Encapsulation
15.6.4.2 Chemical Methods
15.6.4.2.1 Covalent Bonding
15.6.4.2.2 Cross-Linking
15.6.5 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Production Using Immobilized Lipase
15.6.5.1 Solvents
15.6.5.2 Alcohol Type
15.6.5.3 Temperature
15.6.5.4 Effect of Water Content
15.6.5.5 Inhibiting Lipase Inactivation Caused by Short-Chain Alcohols
15.6.5.5.1 Methanol Stepwise Addition
15.6.5.5.2 Acyl Acceptor Alterations
15.6.5.5.3 Solvent Engineering
15.6.6 Applications of Immobilized Lipase
15.7 Non-catalytic Biodiesel Production
15.8 Comparison of Production Techniques
15.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: An Overview, Current Trends, and Prospects of Biophotovoltaic Systems (BPVs)
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Basic Components and Electrochemical Analysis for BPV
16.3 Role of Microbial Biofilm
16.4 Photosystems of Prokaryotic Phototrophs
16.5 Metabolism and Electron Transfer Mechanism of Prokaryotic Phototrophs
16.5.1 Metabolism and Electron Transfer Mechanism in Oxygenic Phototrophs
16.5.2 Metabolism and Electron Transfer Mechanism by Anoxygenic Phototrophs
16.6 Forms of Prokaryotic Phototroph´s Powered BPV
16.6.1 Oxygenic Phototroph´s Powered BPV
16.6.2 Anoxygenic Phototroph´s Powered BPV
16.7 Current Status of BPV Systems
16.8 Challenges and Future Outlook
16.8.1 Optimization of the Light Source
16.8.2 Suitability, Sustainability, and Economics
16.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Applications of Nanotechnology in Biofuel Production
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biofuels: Feedstock and Process Overview
17.2.1 Classification: Biofuel Generation Based on Feedstocks
17.2.1.1 First-Generation Biofuels
17.2.1.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
17.2.1.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
17.2.1.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuels
17.2.2 Biofuel Production Processes
17.2.2.1 Fermentation
17.2.2.2 Transesterification
17.2.2.3 Physical Conversion
17.2.2.4 Thermochemical Conversion
17.2.2.5 Biochemical Conversion
17.2.2.6 Algal Biomass Conversion
17.3 Application of Nanotechnology in Biofuel Production
17.3.1 Properties of Nanomaterials
17.3.2 Methods of Synthesis of Nanomaterials
17.3.3 Factors Affecting Nanoparticles in Biofuel Production
17.3.3.1 Effect of pH
17.3.3.2 Route of Synthesis
17.3.3.3 Effect of Temperature
17.3.3.4 Effect of Pressure
17.3.3.5 Size of Nanoparticles
17.3.4 Nanomaterials with Potential Application in Biofuel Production
17.3.4.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs)
17.3.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
17.3.4.3 Other Nanoparticles in Heterogeneous Catalysis
17.3.5 Nanotechnology for Immobilization of Biocatalysts
17.4 Nanotechnology for Production of Biofuel
17.4.1 Biodiesel
17.4.2 Biogas
17.4.3 Biohydrogen
17.4.3.1 Dark Fermentation Method
17.4.3.2 Photofermentation Method
17.4.3.3 Photocatalytic Method
17.4.4 Bioethanol Production
17.5 Prospect
17.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Waste to Bioenergy Perspective Through Life Cycle Inventory
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Methodology
18.3 The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Approach
18.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition
18.3.2 System Boundary
18.3.3 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
18.3.3.1 Collection and Transport
18.3.3.2 Recycling
18.3.4 WTE Technologies: Scenarios
18.3.4.1 Scenarios I: Anaerobic Digestion
18.3.4.2 Scenario II: Pyrolysis-Gasification
18.3.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
18.4 Results and Discussion
18.5 Conclusion
References