This textbook covers the range of psychological and interpersonal issues that can affect astronauts living and working in space. It deals with the three major risk areas cited by NASA’s Behavioral Health and Performance Element: Behavioral Medicine, Team Risk, and Sleep Risk.Based on the author’s more than 50 years of experience in space-related activities writing, conducting research, and teaching undergraduate and graduate courses, the book follows a comprehensive range of topics that include: cognitive effects; psychiatric issues; cultural influences; salutogenic and positive aspects of space travel; autonomy and delayed communication; current plans to return to the Moon and Mars; analysis of study environments such as the polar regions, submersible habitats, and space simulation facilities; and more. It draws on research, literature, and case studies from the 1950s onward, showing readers in a natural and accessible way how the field has progressed over time.
The book contains ample end-of-chapter summaries and exercises as well as a complete glossary of key terms. As such, it will serve students taking courses in aerospace psychology, psychiatry, sociology, human factors, medicine, and related social sciences, in addition to space industry professionals and others interested in the complexities of people living and working in space.
Author(s): Nick Kanas
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 437
City: Cham
Foreword
Preface
General Issues in Human Spaceflight
Use of Space Analogs and Simulators
From the Archives Sections
From the Archives: Introduction [23]
Chapter Organization
References
Acknowledgments
Contents
Author Biography
Glossary and Acronyms
Chapter 1: Stress, Sleep, and Cognition in Microgravity
1.1 From the Archives: Stress and Its Measurement [1]
1.1.1 Stress and Stressors
1.1.2 Measurement of Psychological and Social Stress
1.2 Stressors in Space
1.3 From the Archives: Weightlessness and Low Sensory Input [1]
1.3.1 Weightlessness
1.3.2 Hypodynamia Studies
1.3.3 Weightlessness and Hypodynamia
1.3.4 Weightlessness and the Astronaut
1.3.5 Artificial Gravity
1.3.6 Exercise
1.4 Coping with Microgravity
1.5 Psychophysiological Stress
1.6 From the Archives: Circadian Rhythms and Sleep [1]
1.6.1 Circadian Rhythms
1.6.2 Circadian Rhythms and Performance
1.6.3 Circadian Rhythms in Space
1.6.4 Work/Rest Cycles
1.6.5 Sleep
1.6.6 Sleeping in Space
1.7 Circadian Rhythms and Sleep: Current Status
1.7.1 Circadian Rhythms
1.7.2 Sleep
1.8 Cognition and Performance
1.8.1 Theoretical Issues
1.8.2 In-Flight Monitoring of Crewmember Attention and Cognition
1.8.3 Cognition and Performance in Space: Current Status
1.8.4 Russian Pilot-T Study
1.9 Points to Remember
1.10 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 2: Living and Working in Space
2.1 From the Archives: Behavioral Issues [1]
2.1.1 Confinement, Isolation, and Monotony (See also Sect. 3.5.1)
2.1.1.1 Antarctic Data
2.1.1.2 Submarine Data
2.1.1.3 Space Simulation Data
2.1.1.4 Generalizations
2.1.2 Stages of Reaction to Isolation (Rohrer)
2.2 Psychological Stress in Near-Earth Missions
2.3 Initial Adjustment
2.4 Habitability
2.5 Work
2.5.1 General Issues
2.5.2 Manzey’s Work Strategies in Space
2.6 Mission Stages and the Third Quarter Phenomenon
2.7 MIR and ISS “Interactions” Studies: Time and Critical Incidents
2.7.1 Preliminary Study in the Mir Space Station Simulator (HUBES)
2.7.2 Methodology of the Mir and ISS “Interactions” Studies
2.7.3 Time Findings
2.7.3.1 Mir Study (Fig. 2.5)
2.7.3.2 ISS Study (Fig. 2.6)
2.7.3.3 Time Conclusions
2.7.4 Critical Incident Log Findings
2.7.4.1 Mir Study
2.7.4.2 ISS Study
2.7.4.3 Critical Incident Log Conclusions
2.7.5 A Kanas et al. Interactions Replication Study from China—Time Findings
2.8 ISS “Journals” Study
2.8.1 Preliminary Study During Long-Duration ICEs (French Diaries Study)
2.8.2 ISS “Journals” Study
2.9 Points to Remember
2.10 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 3: Emotional Highs and Lows
3.1 Positive Experiences in Space
3.2 The Overview Effect: Spirituality and Humanism
3.3 Salutogenesis and Resilience
3.4 Changes in Value System
3.5 From the Archives: Psychiatric Issues [33]
3.5.1 The Magnitude of the Problem (See Also Sect. 2.1.1.1)
3.5.2 Reaction to Danger
3.5.3 Tension Reduction
3.5.4 Psychotherapy in Space
3.6 Psychiatric Problems in Space
3.6.1 Frequency of Psychiatric Problems
3.6.2 Adjusting to Space and Adjustment Disorders
3.6.3 Asthenia
3.6.4 Other Psychiatric Disorders
3.7 Treatment Considerations
3.7.1 Psychoactive Medications
3.7.2 Counseling and Psychotherapy
3.7.3 Operational and Family Support
3.7.4 Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies
3.8 Points to Remember
3.9 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 4: Crewmember Selection, Ground and Family Support
4.1 From the Archives: Predicting Action from Personality [1]
4.2 From the Archives: Crew Selection [1]
4.2.1 Jobs in Space
4.2.2 Pilots Versus Scientists
4.2.3 Women in Space
4.2.4 Mixed-Nationality Space Crews
4.2.5 Astronaut Selection
4.3 Personality Characteristics and Crewmember Selection
4.3.1 Astronaut Selection
4.3.1.1 Select-Out: Avoiding Psychopathology
4.3.1.2 Select-In: Personality Testing and the “Right Stuff”
4.3.2 Crew Selection
4.4 Crewmember-Mission Control Relationship
4.4.1 Gushin et al. Crew-Ground Communication Studies
4.4.2 Kelly and Kanas Communication Study: Crew-Ground Findings
4.4.3 ISS Operations Challenges Seen by Mission Control Personnel
4.5 From the Archives: Separation Reactions of Married Women [1]
4.6 Family Issues
4.7 Returning Home
4.8 Points to Remember
4.9 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 5: Human Interactions, Culture, and Team Behavior
5.1 From the Archives: Sociological Considerations [1]
5.1.1 Sociological Stressors
5.1.2 Group Size
5.1.3 Group Structure
5.1.4 Leadership
5.1.5 Reduction of Social Roles
5.1.6 Relationship with the Ground Personnel
5.1.7 Interpersonal Compatibility
5.1.8 Preventing Interpersonal Strife: (i.e., Crew Compatibility—NK)
5.1.9 Preventing Interpersonal Strife: (i.e., Displacement—NK)
5.2 Team Cohesion in Space
5.2.1 Effect of Team Tension
5.2.2 Team Size
5.2.3 Team Composition
5.3 Individual Crewmember Issues Affecting Team Behavior
5.3.1 Personality Conflicts
5.3.2 Differing Career Motivations and Life Experiences
5.3.3 Male-Female Differences
5.3.4 Sexual Relationship Issues
5.4 Interpersonal Group Issues Affecting Team Behavior
5.4.1 Territorial Behavior and Withdrawal
5.4.2 Subgrouping and Scapegoating
5.4.3 Displacement
5.4.4 Unclear Leadership Roles
5.5 Cultural and Language Issues
5.5.1 Cultural Challenges for Space Crews
5.5.2 Types of Culture in Human Space Missions
5.5.3 Cultural Issues in Space: Surveys
5.5.4 The Importance of a Common Language
5.5.5 Kelly and Kanas Communication Study: Intra-Crew Findings
5.6 Mir and ISS “Interactions” Studies: Displacement, Leadership, and Culture
5.6.1 Displacement
5.6.1.1 Preliminary Study in the Mir Space Station Simulator (HUBES)
5.6.1.2 Mir and ISS “Interactions” Displacement Findings
5.6.2 Leadership
5.6.2.1 Preliminary Study in the Mir Space Station Simulator (HUBES)
5.6.2.2 Mir and ISS “Interactions” Leadership Findings
5.6.3 Culture
5.6.3.1 Mir and ISS “Interactions” Culture Findings
5.6.3.2 ISS Culture and Language Questionnaire Findings
5.7 Related Studies
5.7.1 A Kanas et al. “Interactions” Replication Study from China: Displacement and Leadership Findings
5.7.2 Gushin et al. Communication Validation Study
5.7.3 Gushin et al. Interactions Studies
5.7.4 Gushin et al. Content Study
5.7.5 Asthenia and Culture Study
5.7.6 Multiteam CELSS Study
5.7.7 Ethology in Lunar Palace I
5.8 New Approaches of Studying Team Dynamics in Space
5.9 Points to Remember
5.10 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 6: Countermeasures for Near-Earth Space Missions
6.1 Pre-launch Training
6.1.1 Training Topics
6.1.2 Kinds of Training
6.2 Space Crew Monitoring and Support from the Ground
6.2.1 Psychological Support Groups
6.2.2 Private Conferences with People on Earth
6.2.3 Family Support and Holidays
6.2.4 Voice Frequency Analysis
6.3 From the Archives: Monitoring Instruments [46]
6.4 Intra-crew Monitoring, Support, and Coping During the Mission
6.4.1 Actiwatch and Oura Rings
6.4.2 Team Self-monitoring, Bull Sessions, and Debriefs
6.4.3 Individual Cognitive Self-monitoring
6.4.4 Suedfeld et al. Coping Strategy Studies
6.4.4.1 General Coping Strategies
6.4.4.2 Humor as a Coping Strategy
6.4.5 Virtual Reality
6.5 From the Archives: Leisure Time–Submarines and Antarctica [46]
6.6 Leisure Time in Space
6.6.1 Kelly and Kanas Communication Study: Leisure Time Findings
6.6.2 Stuster “Journals” Study: Leisure Time Findings
6.6.3 Stocking for Flexibility
6.7 Post-mission Readaptation
6.7.1 Individual Issues
6.7.2 Family Issues
6.8 Points to Remember
6.9 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 7: Commercial Human Spaceflight
7.1 Suborbital Missions
7.1.1 Early History: The Ansari X Prize
7.1.2 Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic
7.1.3 Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin
7.1.4 Suborbital Pre-Launch Training and the Mission Experience
7.1.5 Medical and Psychological Issues for Suborbital Missions
7.2 Orbital Missions
7.2.1 Early History: Space Station Missions
7.2.2 United Launch Alliance
7.2.3 Elon Musk’s SpaceX
7.2.4 Russian Soyuz Program (See Also Sect. 7.2.1)
7.2.5 Robert Bigelow’s Inflatable Habitats
7.2.6 Axiom Space, Inc.
7.2.7 Orbital Pre-launch Training and the Mission Experience
7.2.8 Medical and Psychological Issues for Orbital Missions
7.3 The Market for Commercial Human Spaceflight
7.4 Legal and Environmental Issues
7.5 Lunar and Solar System Missions
7.6 Points to Remember
7.7 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 8: Artemis and the Psychosociology of Lunar Colonies
8.1 Why Go Back to the Moon?
8.2 Artemis Program
8.2.1 Artemis I
8.2.2 Artemis II
8.2.3 Artemis III
8.2.4 Artemis IV
8.2.5 Artemis V
8.2.6 Artemis Base Camp
8.2.7 Multinational Participation in Artemis: Legal and Other Issues
8.3 Space Colonies
8.3.1 O’Neill Cylinders
8.3.2 Stanford Torus
8.4 Lunar Colonies
8.4.1 Constructing and Populating a Permanent Lunar Colony
8.4.2 Colonizing the Moon: Psychosocial Lessons from Science Fiction
8.4.3 Colonizing the Moon: Psychosocial Lessons Based on Earth Experiences
8.4.4 Colonizing the Moon: Psychosociological Conclusions
8.5 Points to Remember
8.6 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 9: Expeditions to Mars and Beyond
9.1 Going to Mars
9.2 Distance: A Behavioral Game Changer
9.2.1 Psychological Stressors
9.2.2 Interpersonal Stressors
9.3 Autonomy
9.3.1 General Issues
9.3.2 Studies of High Versus Low Autonomy
9.4 Communication Delays
9.4.1 General Issues
9.4.2 Studies of Delayed Communication
9.5 Mars 500 Project
9.6 Countermeasures for a Mars Expedition
9.6.1 Pre-Launch Selection
9.6.2 Pre-Launch Training
9.6.3 Intra-Crew Monitoring, Support, and Coping During the Mission
9.6.4 Post-Mission Readaptation (See Also Sect. 6.7)
9.7 Colonizing Mars
9.7.1 Colonizing Mars: Psychosocial Lessons from Science Fiction
9.7.2 Colonizing Mars: Psychosocial Issues Based on Earth Experiences
9.7.3 Colonizing Mars: Cognitive Shifts
9.7.4 Colonizing Mars: Large Simulator Studies on Earth
9.7.5 Colonizing Mars: Psychosociological Conclusions
9.8 Interplanetary Expeditions Beyond Mars
9.9 Points to Remember
9.10 Food for Thought
References
Chapter 10: Appendix. Introductory Quotations and Conclusions from NASA TM X-58067 (1971): Behavioral, Psychiatric, and Sociological Problems of Long-Duration Space Missions (N.A. Kanas & William E. Fedderson)
10.1 Summary
10.2 Conclusions on Stress and Its Measurement
10.3 Conclusions on Weightlessness and Low Sensory Input
10.4 Conclusions on Circadian Rhythm and Sleep
10.5 Conclusions on Confinement, Isolation, and Monotony
10.6 Conclusions on Psychiatric Considerations
10.7 Conclusions on Sociological Considerations
10.8 Conclusions on Crew Selection
10.9 Concluding Remarks
References
Index
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