This book provides a state-of-the-art report on our current understanding of aquaporins and the future direction of the field.
Aquaporins (AQPs) are a group of water-channel proteins that are specifically permeable to water and other small molecules, such as glycerol and urea. To date thirteen water-channel proteins (AQP0 – AQP12) have been cloned and the mechanisms and physiological functions of water transport across biological membranes have long been the subject of interest. Recent advances in the molecular biology and physiology of water transport have yielded new insights into how and why water moves across cell membranes, and studies on aquaporin knockout mouse models suggest that aquaporins are involved in the development of some diseases and they may be useful targets of research into selective-inhibitor drugs. By focusing on the advances made over the last 30 years in the biophysics, genetics, protein structure, molecular biology, physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology of aquaporins in mammalian cell membranes, this book provides novel insights into further mechanisms and the physiological significance of water and some small molecule transport in mammals in order to stimulate further research in new directions.
In the second version, fourteen chapters will be updated base on the most recent research articles. Ten new chapters will be added.
Author(s): Baoxue Yang
Series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 1398
Edition: 2
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 361
City: Singapore
Preface
Contents
1: Classification and Gene Structure of Aquaporins
1.1 Classification of Aquaporins
1.2 Isoforms of AQPs
1.2.1 Classical Aquaporins
1.2.1.1 AQP0
1.2.1.2 AQP1
1.2.1.3 AQP2
1.2.1.4 AQP4
1.2.1.5 AQP5
1.2.1.6 AQP6
1.2.2 Superaquaporins
1.2.2.1 AQP11
1.2.2.2 AQP12
1.2.3 AQP8-Type Aquaammoniaporins
1.2.3.1 AQP8
1.2.4 Aquaglyceroporins
1.2.4.1 AQP3
1.2.4.2 AQP7
1.2.4.3 AQP9
1.2.4.4 AQP10
1.3 Gene Structures of AQPs
References
2: Protein Structure and Modification of Aquaporins
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Protein Structure of AQPs
2.2.1 Protein Structure the Classical AQPs
2.2.1.1 AQP0
2.2.1.2 AQP1
2.2.1.3 AQP2
2.2.1.4 AQP4
2.2.1.5 AQP5
2.2.2 Protein Structure of Aquaglyceroporins
2.2.2.1 AQP7
2.2.2.2 AQP10
2.2.3 Structure of Other AQPs
2.2.3.1 Plant AQPs
2.2.3.2 Eukaryotic Microorganism AQPs
2.2.3.3 Unicellular Protozoan AQPs
2.2.3.4 Prokaryotic AQPs
2.3 Protein Modification of AQPs
2.3.1 Protein Modification of AQP2
2.3.1.1 Phosphorylation
2.3.1.2 Ubiquitination
2.3.1.3 SUMOylation
2.3.1.4 Glutathionylation
2.3.1.5 Glycosylation
2.3.1.6 Other PTMs
2.3.2 PTM of Other AQPs
2.3.2.1 AQP0
2.3.2.2 AQP1
2.3.2.3 AQP4
2.3.2.4 AQP5
2.3.2.5 AQP8
2.4 Summary and Prospect
References
3: Expression Regulation and Trafficking of Aquaporins
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Gating of AQPs
3.3 Trafficking of AQP2 to the Membrane
3.3.1 The cAMP-Mediated Effect of Vasopressin on AQP2 Trafficking
3.3.2 The Role of Calcium in Vasopressin-Induced AQP2 Trafficking
3.3.3 Vesicles Bearing AQP2 Transport to the Membrane
3.3.4 Docking and Fusion of Vesicles Bearing AQP2 with the Apical Membrane
3.3.5 Removal of AQP2 from the Membrane and Degradation
3.4 Transcriptional Regulation of AQP2
3.4.1 Transcription Factors Responsible for the Expression Regulation of Aqp2
3.4.2 AQP2-Targeting miRNAs in the Kidney
3.5 Epigenetic Regulation of AQP2
References
4: Transport Characteristics of Aquaporins
4.1 Water Transport Mediated by Aquaporins
4.2 Glycerol Transport Mediated by AQPs
4.3 Urea Transport Mediated by AQPs
4.4 Gas Transport Mediated by AQPs
4.4.1 Carbon Dioxide
4.4.2 Nitric Oxide
4.4.3 Ammonia
4.4.4 Oxygen (O2)
4.5 Other Molecules Transported by Aquaporins
4.5.1 Hydrogen Peroxide
4.5.2 Some Ions
4.5.3 Silicon
4.5.4 Antimonite and Arsenite
References
5: Non-Transport Functions of Aquaporins
5.1 AQPs in Cell Migration
5.2 AQPs in Central Neural System (CNS)
5.2.1 AQP4 in Brain Edema
5.2.2 AQP4 in Neuroexcitation
5.3 AQPs in Fat Metabolism
5.4 AQP and Cell Proliferation
5.5 AQPs in Inflammation
5.5.1 AQPs and Lung Inflammation
5.5.2 AQPs and Digestive System Inflammation
5.5.3 AQPs and Neuroinflammation
5.5.4 AQPs and Arthritis
5.5.5 AQPs and Liver Inflammation
5.6 Conclusion
References
6: Evolutionary Overview of Aquaporin Superfamily
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Classification of AQP Superfamily
6.2.1 Dichotomy Between Plasma Membrane AQP and Intracellular AQP
6.2.2 Classification Based on the NPA Box Domain
6.2.3 Correlation to the Selective Filter (SF) of AQP Channel
6.3 Putative Evolution of AQP Superfamily
6.3.1 Overview of Gene Evolution
6.3.2 The Relationship Between AQP1-Like and AQP3-Like
6.3.3 Evolution of AQP3-Like
6.3.4 The Origin of AQP8-Like and AQP11-Like
6.4 Perspectives
References
7: Aquaporins in Nervous System
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Expression of AQPs in Nervous System
7.2.1 AQPs in the Central Nervous System
7.2.1.1 AQP1
7.2.1.2 AQP3
7.2.1.3 AQP4
7.2.1.4 AQP5
7.2.1.5 AQP6
7.2.1.6 AQP7
7.2.1.7 AQP8
7.2.1.8 AQP9
7.2.1.9 AQP11
7.2.2 AQPs in the Peripheral Nervous System
7.2.2.1 AQP1
7.2.2.2 AQP2
7.2.2.3 AQP4
7.3 Functions of AQPs in Nervous System
7.3.1 CNS Water Balance
7.3.2 Clearance of ISF Substances
7.3.3 Spatial Buffering of Extracellular Potassium
7.3.4 Calcium Signal Transduction
7.3.5 Regulation of Neurotransmission
7.3.6 Synaptic Plasticity
7.3.7 Adult Neurogenesis
7.3.8 Energy Metabolism
7.3.9 Other Functions
7.4 AQPs in Diseases in Nervous System
7.4.1 Cerebral Edema
7.4.2 Neuromyelitis Optica
7.4.3 Brain Tumor
7.4.4 Alzheimer´s Disease
7.4.5 Other Diseases in Nervous System
7.5 Modulators of AQPs in the CNS
7.6 Future Directions
References
8: Aquaporins in Cardiovascular System
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Expression and Physiological Function of AQPs in the Cardiovascular System
8.2.1 AQP1
8.2.2 AQP4
8.2.3 AQP7
8.2.4 AQP9
8.3 AQPs and Cardiovascular Disease
8.3.1 Cerebral Ischemia
8.3.2 Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
8.3.3 Hypertension
8.3.4 Pulmonary Hypertension
8.3.5 Angiogenesis
8.4 Summary
References
9: Aquaporins in Respiratory System
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Expression of AQPs in Lungs and Airways
9.3 Functions of AQPs in Lung Fluid Transport
9.3.1 Alveolar Fluid Balance
9.3.2 Airway Fluid Balance
9.3.3 Pleural Fluid Balance
9.3.4 Submucosal Gland Secretion
9.4 AQPs in Respiratory Diseases
9.4.1 Lung Cancer Development
9.4.2 Lung Inflammation/Lung Injury
9.4.3 Asthma
9.5 Summary
References
10: Aquaporins in Digestive System
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Expression of AQPs in the Gastrointestinal Tract and Digestive Glands
10.2.1 Aquaporin Subfamily
10.2.1.1 AQP1
10.2.1.2 AQP4
10.2.1.3 AQP5
10.2.1.4 AQP8
10.2.2 Aquaglyceroporin Subfamily
10.2.2.1 AQP3
10.2.2.2 AQP7
10.2.2.3 AQP9
10.2.2.4 AQP10
10.2.3 Superaquaporin Subfamily
10.2.3.1 AQP12
10.3 Functions of AQPs in the Digestive System
10.3.1 Fat Digestion
10.3.2 Digestive Fluid Secretion
10.3.3 Water Absorption
10.3.4 Intestinal Barrier
10.3.5 Insulin Secretion
10.3.6 Glycerol Metabolism
10.4 AQPs and Digestive Diseases
10.4.1 Cancer
10.4.2 Sjogren´s Syndrome
10.4.3 Pancreatitis
10.4.4 Liver Disease
10.4.5 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
10.5 Conclusion
References
11: Aquaporins in Urinary System
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Expression and Localization of AQPs in Urinary System
11.2.1 AQP1
11.2.2 AQP2
11.2.3 AQP3
11.2.4 AQP4
11.2.5 AQP5
11.2.6 AQP6
11.2.7 AQP7
11.2.8 AQP8
11.2.9 AQP9
11.2.10 AQP11
11.3 Functions of AQPs in Urinary System
11.3.1 AQP1
11.3.2 AQP2
11.3.3 AQP3
11.3.4 AQP4
11.3.5 AQP5
11.3.6 AQP6
11.3.7 AQP7
11.3.8 AQP8
11.3.9 AQP11
11.4 AQPs in Renal Diseases
11.4.1 Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus
11.4.2 Polycystic Kidney Disease
11.4.3 Acute Kidney Injury
11.4.4 Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Fibrosis
11.4.5 Tumors
11.4.6 Pyelonephritis and IgA Nephropathy
11.4.7 Chronic Kidney Diseases
References
12: Aquaporins in Reproductive System
12.1 Aquaporins in the Male Reproductive System
12.1.1 Water Transport in the Male Reproductive System
12.1.2 Aquaporins in Testis
12.1.3 Aquaporins in Sperm
12.1.4 Aquaporins in Efferent Ducts
12.1.5 Aquaporins in Epididymis
12.1.6 Aquaporins in Vas Deferens
12.1.7 Aquaporins in Male Accessory Glands
12.2 Aquaporins in the Female Reproductive System
12.2.1 Aquaporins in Vagina
12.2.2 Aquaporins in Cervix
12.2.3 Aquaporins in Uterus
12.2.4 Aquaporins in Oviduct
12.2.5 Aquaporins in Ovary
12.2.6 Aquaporins in Oocyte
12.3 Aquaporins and Sperm Cryopreservation
12.4 Aquaporins and Reproductive Diseases
12.4.1 Varicocele
12.4.2 Endometriosis
12.4.3 Cervical Cancer
12.5 Conclusions and Prospects
References
13: Aquaporins in Immune System
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Expression of AQPs in Immune System
13.3 Functions of AQPs in Immune System
13.3.1 Immune Cell Priming
13.3.2 Migration, Phagocytosis, and Antigen Uptake of Immune Cells
13.3.3 Inflammatory Activation
13.3.4 Other Aspects
13.4 AQPs and Immune Disease
13.5 Conclusion and Prospect
References
14: Aquaporins in Eye
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Expression of AQPs in Eye
14.2.1 Cornea
14.2.2 Trabecular Meshwork
14.2.3 Ciliary Body
14.2.4 Lens
14.2.5 Retina
14.2.6 Lacrimal Gland
14.3 Functional Abnormality of AQPs in Eye and Diseases
References
15: Aquaporins in Skin
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Expression of AQPs in Different Layers of Skin
15.2.1 AQPs in Epidermis
15.2.2 AQPs in Dermis and Hypodermis
15.3 Functions of AQPs in Different Layers of Skin
15.3.1 Functions of AQPs in Epidermis
15.3.2 Functions of AQPs in Dermis and Hypodermis
15.4 AQPs in Skin Diseases
15.4.1 Xeroderma and Skin Dryness
15.4.2 Psoriasis
15.4.3 Vitiligo
15.4.4 Dermatitis
15.4.5 Skin Tumors
15.4.6 Palmoplantar Keratoderma
15.4.7 Systemic Sclerosis
15.4.8 Wound Healing
15.5 Summary
References
16: Aquaporins in Glandular Secretion
16.1 Role of AQPs in Secretory Glands Located within the Gastrointestinal Tract
16.1.1 Salivary Glands
16.1.2 Gastric Glands
16.1.3 Duodenal Brunner´s Gland
16.1.4 Liver, Bile Ducts, and Gallbladder
16.1.4.1 Liver
16.1.4.2 Bile Ducts
16.1.4.3 Gallbladder
16.1.5 Intestinal Goblet Cells
16.1.6 Exocrine Pancreas
16.1.7 Endocrine Pancreas
16.2 Airway Submucosal Glands
16.3 Lacrimal Glands
16.4 Mammary Glands
16.5 Eccrine Sweat Glands
16.6 Conclusions
References
17: Aquaporins in Fetal Development
17.1 The Water Transport across the Human Placenta
17.2 Expression of AQPs in Placental and Fetal Membranes throughout Pregnancy
17.3 Expression of AQPs in Fetal Tissues
17.3.1 Fetal Kidneys
17.3.2 Fetal Urinary Tract
17.3.3 Fetal Lungs
17.3.4 Fetal Heart
17.3.5 Fetal Skin
17.3.6 Fetal Brain
17.4 Physiological and Pathological Significance of AQPs in Fetal Membranes
17.5 Physiological and Pathological Significance of AQPs in Human Trophoblast
17.6 Regulation of AQPs in Human Fetal Membranes and Trophoblast Cells
17.6.1 Fetal Membranes
17.6.1.1 cAMP
17.6.1.2 Osmotic Stress
17.6.1.3 Insulin
17.6.1.4 Retinoic Acid
17.6.2 Trophoblast Cells
17.6.2.1 Oxygen
17.6.2.2 hCG
17.6.2.3 Vasopressin
17.6.2.4 Leptin
17.6.2.5 Insulin
17.6.2.6 TNF-α
17.6.2.7 CFTR
17.6.2.8 pH
17.6.2.9 Caveola/Caveolin-1
17.7 Conclusion
References
18: Aquaporins in Diabetes Insipidus
18.1 Diabetes Insipidus
18.2 Central Diabetes Insipidus and Vasopressin
18.3 Gestational Diabetes Insipidus
18.4 Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus
18.4.1 Congenital Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus
18.4.2 Acquired Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus
18.4.3 VP-V2R/AQP2 Axis in Regulating Water Transport
18.5 Clinical Manifestation, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Diabetes Insipidus
18.5.1 Clinical Manifestation of Diabetes Insipidus
18.5.2 Differential Diagnosis of Diabetes Insipidus
18.5.3 Treatment of Diabetes Insipidus
18.5.4 Treatment of Central Diabetes Insipidus
18.5.5 Treatment for Nephrogenic DI
18.5.6 Novel Therapeutic Strategy for NDI
18.5.6.1 Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors
18.5.6.2 Statins
18.5.6.3 Prostaglandins
18.5.6.4 Metformin
References
19: Aquaporins in Edema
19.1 Introduction
19.2 AQPs and Edema
19.2.1 Congestive Heart Failure
19.2.2 AQPs and Hepatic Cirrhosis
19.2.3 AQPs and Syndrome of Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone
19.3 Conclusion
References
20: Aquaporins in Obesity
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Adipose Biology and Pathophysiology
20.3 Aquaporins in Obesity
20.4 Glycerol Metabolism and Energy Homeostasis
20.5 Aquaporins in Adipose Tissue
20.5.1 AQP7 Expression and Role in Fat Accumulation
20.5.2 Regulation of AQP7 Expression
20.5.3 Other Aquaporins in Adipose Tissue
20.6 Aquaporins as Drug Targets of Obesity
20.7 Final Considerations
References
21: Aquaporins in Tumor
21.1 Introduction
21.2 AQPs in Tumor
21.2.1 Water-Selective Aquaporins
21.2.1.1 AQP1
21.2.1.2 AQP2
21.2.1.3 AQP4
21.2.1.4 AQP5
21.2.1.5 AQP6
21.2.1.6 AQP8
21.2.2 Aquaglyceroporins
21.2.2.1 AQP3
21.2.2.2 AQP7
21.2.2.3 AQP9
21.2.3 Super Aquaporins
21.3 Conclusion and Prospect
References
22: Aquaporin Inhibitors
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methods for Screening AQP Inhibitors
22.2.1 Cell Swelling Assay
22.2.2 Cell Shrinking Assay
22.2.3 Stopped-Flow Assay
22.3 AQPs Inhibitors
22.3.1 Metal-Related Inhibitors
22.3.2 Proposed Quaternary Ammonium Salts
22.3.3 Small Molecules
22.3.3.1 Sulfanilamide Analogies
22.3.3.2 TGN-020
22.3.3.3 Antiepileptic Drugs
22.3.3.4 Other Compounds
22.4 Summary and Prospect
References
23: Non-Aquaporin Water Channels
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Urea Transporter B
23.3 Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator
23.4 Cotransporters
23.4.1 K-Cl Cotransporter
23.4.2 Na-K-Cl Cotransporters
23.4.3 Moncarboxylate Transporter
23.4.4 GABA Transporter
23.4.5 Na+-Coupled Glutamate Transporter EAAT
23.4.6 Sodium Glucose Transporters (SGLT)
23.4.7 Sodium Borate Cotransporter
23.4.8 Na+-Dicarboxylate Cotransporter
23.4.9 Glucose Transporter (GLUT)
References
24: Methods to Measure Water Permeability
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Water Permeability Methods Based on Cell Volume Measurements
24.2.1 Water Permeability Measurement by 2D Image Analysis
24.2.2 Water Permeability Measurement by Scanning Probe Microscopy
24.2.3 Water Permeability Measurement by Light Scattering and Spatial Filtering Microscopy
24.2.4 Water Permeability Measurement by Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
24.2.5 Water Permeability Measurement by Digital Holographic Microscopy
24.2.6 Water Permeability Measurement by Microfluidic-Based Methods
24.3 Water Permeability Methods for In Vivo and Ex Vivo Studies
24.4 Conclusion
References
Index
