Fungi are an important link in the food webs of all ecosystems. They have immense potential and comprise a myriad of useful bioactive compounds. Fungi feature in a wide range of diverse processes and applications in modern agriculture, the food science industry, and the pharmaceutical industry.
In the food and drink arena, the role of fungi is historically important in the form of mushrooms and in fermented foods as yeasts for baking and brewing. These roles are supplemented by the use of fungal food processing enzymes and additives, and more recently in the development of protein-based foodstuffs from fungi. Additionally, they are used in the formulation of biofertilizers and biopesticides used as biostimulants and bioprotectants of crops. The practical use of newer techniques such as genetic recombination and robotics have revolutionized the modem agricultural biotechnology industry, and have created an enormous range of possible further applications of fungal products.
Myco-materials created from mycelia (the root-like parts of fungi) are gaining attention as a sustainable alternative for a wide range of materials. They are being used as insulation, sustainable packaging, foam inserts, and even "eco-leather.” In fact, mycelium bricks are pound-for-pound stronger than concrete. In addition, medicinal uses of fungal species have been historically recorded as important agents in the pharmaceutical sciences. The potential for myco-materials seems limitless.
The field of mycology and its application has become an increasingly important component in the education of industrial biotechnology. This book on applied mycology provides information helpful for developing entrepreneurial opportunities with fungi. This volume explains both the basic science and the applications of mycology and bio-resource technology with special emphasis on entrepreneurial applications. It offers a complete, one-stop resource for those interested in microbiology, food and agricultural science, medical mycology, and for those in industrial biotechnology.
Author(s): Amritesh Chandra Shukla
Series: Fungal Biology
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 450
City: Cham
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Fungal Cosmetics: Mushrooms in Beauty Care and the New Age of Natural Cosmetics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Application in Skincare
1.2.1 Anti-microbial Properties
1.2.1.1 Anti-dermatophytic and Skin Protective
1.2.1.2 Anti-acne and Anti-inflammatory Properties
1.2.2 Emollient Properties
1.2.3 Exfoliation Properties
1.2.4 Skin Lightening and Brightening Properties
1.2.5 Anti-aging
1.3 Application in Hair Care
1.3.1 Anti-hair Fall
1.3.2 Anti-dandruff
1.3.3 Hair Moisturizing and Conditioning
1.4 Popular Mushrooms with Cosmetic Benefits
1.4.1 Tremella fuciformis
1.4.2 Ganoderma lucidum
1.4.3 Ophiocordyceps sinensis
1.4.4 Agaricus bisporus
1.5 Formulations
1.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Fungal Endophytes: A Potential Source of Low-Cost Entrepreneurship
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Classification of Fungal Endophytes
2.1.2 Reproduction Way of Fungal Endophytes
2.1.3 Fungal Endophytes of Tissue, Organ, and Host Specificity
2.1.4 Interactions Between Fungal Endophytes and Host Plants
2.1.5 Plant Protection by Fungal Endophytes
2.2 Fungal Endophytes Producer of Secondary Metabolites
2.3 Extracellular Enzyme Activities from Fungal Endophytes
2.4 How to Isolate Fungal Endophytes
2.4.1 Morphological Observations of the Isolated Fungal Endophyte
2.5 Extracellular Enzyme Analyses from Endophytic Fungi
2.5.1 Amylolytic Activity
2.5.2 Proteolytic Activity
2.5.3 Cellulolytic Activity
2.5.4 Lipase Activity
2.5.5 Laccase Activity
2.6 Fungal Endophytes as a New Source of Entrepreneur
2.7 International Companies Manufacturing Enzyme from Fungal Endophytes
2.8 Biotechnological Potential of Fungal Endophytes
2.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: The Development of White-Rot Fungi as a Mycoremediation Product
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Habitat’s Contamination
3.1.2 Health Risks and Issues
3.1.3 Industry Sectors
3.1.4 Communities
3.2 The Role of White-Rot Fungi
3.2.1 Biodegradation Process by White-Rot Fungi
3.2.2 Mycoremediation of Environmental Pollutants
3.2.3 Capsule Technology of WRF Product
3.2.4 Cleaning and Removal Contaminations Product
3.3 Development of Potential WRF Product to Entrepreneurs
3.3.1 Natural Environment and Municipal
3.3.2 Agriculture Industry
3.3.3 Food Industry
3.3.4 Pharmaceutical Industry
3.4 Economic Value of Mycoremediation Product in the Market
3.4.1 Benefit to Researchers and Entrepreneurs
3.4.2 Income of Country
3.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Production, Partial Optimization, and Characterization of Keratinase Enzyme by Fungal Species Isolated from Soil of Bhopal
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Keratinases: Applications
4.1.1.1 Detergent Industry
4.1.1.2 Leather Industry
4.1.1.3 Food and Feed Industry
4.1.1.4 Fertilizer for Organic Farming
4.1.1.5 Biofuel Production
4.1.1.6 Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Applications
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.2.1 Collection of Soil Samples
4.2.2 Isolation of Keratinophilic Fungi
4.2.3 Morphological Microscopic and Molecular Identification of Keratinophilic Fungi
4.2.4 Optimization of Culture Condition for Mass Production of Keratinase Enzyme
4.2.5 Enzyme Production
4.2.6 Keratinase Assay
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Morphological Characterization
4.3.2 Molecular Identification of Fungi
4.3.3 Phylogenetic Analysis
4.3.4 Optimization of Culture Media for Keratinase Enzyme Production
4.3.4.1 Effect of Fermentation on Keratinase Enzyme
4.3.4.2 Effect of Temperature on Keratinase Enzyme Production
4.3.4.3 Effect of pH on Keratinase Enzyme Activity
4.3.4.4 Effect of Incubation Time
4.4 Discussion
4.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Potential Impression of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Agricultural Growth, Productivity, and Environment Toward Global Sustainable Development for Green Technology
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Positive and Active Microbes
5.3 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AM Fungi)
5.3.1 Development of Mycorrhizal Fungal Infection
5.3.2 Characteristics of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
5.4 Positive Impact of AM Fungi on Agricultural Crops and Environments
5.4.1 AM Fungi and Plant Growth
5.4.2 AM Fungi and Fertilization
5.4.2.1 AM Fungi and Nitrogen Absorption and Translocation
5.4.2.2 AM Fungi and Phosphorus Translocation
5.4.2.3 AM Fungi and Potassium Nutrition
5.4.2.4 AM Fungi and Other Mineral Nutrition
5.5 AM Fungi and Greenhouse Gas Emission
5.6 AM Fungi and Carbon Farming
5.7 AM Fungi and Soil Management
5.8 AM Fungi and Heavy Metals
5.9 AM Fungi and Environmental Temperature
5.10 AM Fungi and Abiotic Stresses
5.11 AM Fungi: A New Dimension for Green Technology
5.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 6: Mycometabolites in Industrial Applications with Emphasis on Bioherbicide Production
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Ecological Role of Fungi and Their Metabolites
6.2.1 Decomposition and Cycling of Organic and Inorganic Materials
6.2.2 Interactions with Other Organisms
6.2.3 Mutualistic Symbiosis with Plants
6.2.4 Competitive Interactions with Different Organisms
6.3 Secondary Metabolites Biosynthesis
6.3.1 Transcriptional Regulation of Secondary Metabolite Gene Clusters
6.3.2 Signalling and Regulations for pH, Light Intensity, Iron Starvation, and Oxidative Stress During Production of Secondary Metabolites Are as Follows
6.4 Fungal Formulation–Based Early Bioherbicides
6.5 Fungal Metabolites as Bioherbicides
6.6 Future Prospects of Fungal Metabolites as Bioherbicides and Entrepreneurship Possibilities
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Lichenized Fungi as Significant Source of Pharmaceuticals: Possibilities and Limitations for Entrepreneurship Development
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Applications of Lichenized Fungi
7.2.1 Pharmaceuticals
7.2.2 Pesticides
7.2.3 Dyes
7.2.4 Bioremediation
7.3 Exploring Lichens for Entrepreneurship Development
7.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Protocols for Extraction, Isolation, and Purification of Secondary Metabolites of Mushroom and Its Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Protocol for Extraction, Isolation, and Purification of Secondary Metabolites of Mushroom
8.2.1 Selection, Collection, and Identification of Mushroom Material
8.2.2 Drying and Grinding
8.2.3 Extraction, Isolation, and Purification
8.2.3.1 Sequential Extraction Methods to Obtain Different Extracts from Shiitake Mushrooms (Morales et al., 2018)
8.3 Extraction and Isolation of Metabolites from Tapinella atrotomentosa
8.4 Extraction and Isolation of Secondary Metabolites from Agaricus macrosporus
8.5 Secondary Metabolites of Some Mushrooms and Their Applications
8.5.1 Ganoderma spp.
8.5.2 Lentinula edodes (Shittake Mushroom)
8.5.2.1 Polyacetylenes
8.5.2.2 Sulfurous Compounds
8.5.2.3 Sterols
8.5.2.4 Other Compounds
8.5.3 Flammulina velutipe (Golden Needle mushroom)
8.5.3.1 Cuparane Type Sesquiterpenes, Seco-Cuparane Type Sesquiterpenes
8.5.3.2 Spiroaxane, Cadinene, Nor-Eudesmane-Type Sesquiterpenes
8.5.3.3 Sterpurane-Type Sesquiterpenes
8.5.3.4 Cucumane-Type Sesquiterpene
8.5.3.5 Isolactarane Sesquiterpens, Isolactarane-Related Norsesquiterpenes
8.5.3.6 Norsesquiterpe Alkaloid
8.5.3.7 Monoterpenes
References
Chapter 9: Fungi as Nutraceutical: Present to Future
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Fungi: As Nutraceuticals
9.3 Nutraceutical Production: Using Fungi as Elicitors
9.4 Nutraceutical Discovery: Prospects of Fungi
9.5 Entrepreneurship Aspects of Fungal Nutraceutical Industry
9.6 Conclusion and Future Prospective of Nutraceuticals
References
Chapter 10: Potential Application of Edible Mushrooms in Nutrition-Medical Sector and Baking Industries
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Edible Mushrooms and Their Bioactive Compounds
10.2.1 Polysaccharides
10.2.2 Proteins and Peptides
10.2.3 Terpenes
10.2.4 Phenols
10.3 Application of Bioactive Compounds from the Edible Mushroom in the Nutraceutical Sector
10.3.1 Antioxidants
10.3.2 Cholesterol-Lowering Effect
10.3.3 Antiviral Activity
10.3.4 Antiobesity
10.4 Mushroom-Based Bakery Products and Their Benefits as a Functional Food
10.5 Bakery Product Development from Mushroom as New Ways for Entrepreneurship
10.5.1 Bread
10.5.2 Cake
10.5.3 Biscuits
10.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 11: Fungi in Pharmaceuticals and Production of Antibiotics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Different Roles of Fungi in Pharmaceuticals
11.2.1 Antibacterial Antibiotics
11.2.2 Antimycotics and Fungicides
11.2.3 Biofilm Inhibitor
11.2.4 Antimalarial Agent
11.2.5 Anticancer Agents
11.2.6 Antidiabetic Agents
11.2.7 Improving Nerve Function
11.2.8 Cardiovascular Disease Control and Cholesterol-Lowering Agent
11.2.9 Antiviral Agents
11.2.9.1 Inhibitory Natural Product from Fungi Against Human Immunodeficiency Virus
11.2.9.2 Inhibitory Natural Products from Fungi Against Influenza Virus
11.2.9.3 Inhibitory Natural Products from Fungi Against Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
11.2.9.4 Inhibitory Natural Products from Fungi Against Hepatitis Virus
11.2.10 Immunosuppressive and Immunomodulatory Agents from Fungi
11.2.11 Traditional Chinese Medicine
11.3 Pharmaceutical Uses of Fungal Metabolites
11.3.1 Cephalosporin
11.3.2 Coumarins
11.3.3 Cyclosporin
11.3.4 Echinocandins
11.3.5 Ergot Alkaloids
11.3.6 Fingolimod
11.4 Biotechnology in Sustainable Production of Antibiotics
11.4.1 Biotechnological Processes-Associated Production
11.4.1.1 Production Using Full Fermentative Processes
11.4.1.2 Production Using Semi-Synthesis
11.4.1.3 Genetic, Metabolic Engineering, and Heterologous System for Production
11.4.2 Role of Biotechnology in Downstream Processing
11.4.3 Role of Biotechnology in Lead Development
11.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Optimizing Physical Parameters for Amylase Production Using Aspergillus niger and Ammonium Molasses Medium
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Materials and Methods
12.2.1 Isolation of the Microorganism
12.2.2 Screening
12.2.3 Inoculation
12.2.4 Medium
12.2.5 Extraction
12.2.6 Influence of Initial pH, Temperature, and Incubation Time
12.2.7 Enzyme Assay
12.3 Results
12.3.1 Screening
12.3.2 Effect of Initial pH
12.3.3 Effect of Initial Temperature
12.3.4 Effect of Incubation Period
12.4 Discussion
References
Chapter 13: Plant–Fungal Interactions
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Genomics of Plant–Fungal Interactions
13.3 Mycorrhizal Association
13.3.1 Mechanism of Colonization
13.3.2 Formation of Hyphopodium
13.3.3 Gene Expression
13.3.4 Plant Growth and Development
13.4 Fungi as Biofertilizers
13.5 Disease Production
13.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Fungal Biofertilizer: An Alternative for Sustainable Agriculture
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Persisting Effects of Green Revolution
14.1.2 Biofertilizer: An Agent of Bio-based Agroeconomy
14.1.3 Types of Biofertilizers
14.1.4 Advantages of Biofertilizer
14.2 Soil Microbiome: A Repository of Nutrients for Plant–Microbe Holobiont
14.2.1 Soil Mycobiome: Pool of Promising Bioagents for Sustainable Agriculture
14.2.2 Biofertilizer in Agriculture
14.3 Fungal Biofertilizers: Biological Mechanism and Interactions
14.3.1 Mycorrhizal Fungi Used as Biofertilizers: Soil–Fungal–Plant (Root) Interactions
14.3.2 Ectomycorrhizae (ECM)
14.3.3 Endomycorrhizae
14.3.4 Bacterial–Fungal Interactions (BFIs)
14.4 Production, Formulation, and Application of Mycorrhizal Fungi as Fungal Biofertilizers
14.4.1 Penicillium spp.
14.4.2 Aspergillus spp.
14.4.3 Chaetomium spp.
14.4.4 Gliocladium spp.
14.4.5 Trichoderma spp.
14.4.6 Formulation of Fungal Biofertilizers
14.4.7 Mode of Application of Biofertilizers
14.5 Role of Fungal Biofertilizer in Sustainable Agro-Practices
14.5.1 Fungal Biofertilizers as an Alternative to Chemical Fertilizers
14.5.2 Fungal Biofertilizers Enhance Mineral Acquisition and Transport
14.5.3 Fungal Biofertilizers Enhanced Nitrogen Fixation
14.5.4 Fungal Biofertilizers Enhanced Phosphorus Content
14.5.5 Fungal Biofertilizers as an Efficient Biocontrol and Bioremedial Agent
14.6 Fungal Biofertilizers as an Agent of Pesticide Tolerance
14.6.1 Compatibility of Aspergillus niger Isolates with Pesticides
14.6.2 Compatibility of Trichoderma Isolates with Pesticides
14.6.3 Compatibility of ECM with Pesticides: A Novel Path
14.6.4 Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganism (PGPM): Prospects and Constraints
14.6.5 Developing Nation Through Developing Effective Biofertilizers
14.7 Biofertilizer Production: Indian Scenario
14.7.1 Quality Control
14.7.2 Challenges and Prospects of Fungal Biofertilizer Usage
14.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Efficacy of Plant Products as Biofungicides for Postharvest Decay of Root, Tuber, and Bulb Crops: An Opportunity for Bioentrepreneurship
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Methodology
15.2.1 Pathological Studies
15.2.2 In Vitro Evaluation of the Antifungal Efficacy of Plant Extracts
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Plant Pathogenic Fungi and Their Phytotoxins as Bioherbicides
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Phytotoxins and Culture Filtrates
16.3 Considerations in the Use and Development of Microbial Herbicides by Alternaria petroselini (FCLW#23)
16.4 Potential Problems Associated with Bioherbicides
16.5 Use of Live Plant Pathogens Alternaria petroselini (FCLW#23) or Their Phytotoxins as Bioherbicides
16.6 Host-Specific Phytotoxins
16.7 Development Considerations
16.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Mycotoxins: A Concealed Threat in Agri-Food Sector
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Characteristics of Mycotoxins (Cinar and Onbaşı 2018; Etzel 1999)
17.2.1 Difference Between Primary and Secondary Metabolites
17.3 Toxicogenic (Mycotoxin-Producing) Fungi Can Be Distinguished into Two Groups
17.3.1 Preharvest
17.3.2 Postharvest
17.4 Mycotoxin-Detoxifying Agents
17.4.1 Mycotoxin-Adsorbing Agents
17.4.2 Mycotoxin-Biotransforming Agents
17.5 Impact of Mycotoxins on Livestock and Human
17.6 Conclusion
17.7 Summary
References
Chapter 18: Efficacy of Phytohormones on Mycotoxin Treated Maize Seeds (Zea mays L.)
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Material and Methods
18.2.1 Collection of Healthy Seeds
18.2.2 Collection of Aflatoxin B1 and Phytohormones
18.2.3 Preparation of Stock Solution
18.2.4 Seed Germination Index (GI)
18.2.5 Quantitative Estimation of Starch
18.2.5.1 Assay of α-Amylase
18.2.6 Quantitative Estimation of Protein
18.3 Results and Discussion
18.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: The Untapped Potential of Fungi in Phenol Biodegradation
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Major Fungal Species for Phenol Degradation
19.3 Mycoremediation Pathways
19.4 Fungal Immobilization Techniques for Phenol Degradation
19.4.1 Cell Entrapment
19.4.2 Adsorption
19.4.3 Encapsulation
19.5 Fungal Reactor Models for Phenol Removal
19.6 Entrepreneurial Aspects of Fungal Bioremediation
19.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Mycobased Biorefinery for Gold Nanoparticles Production
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Mycobased Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles
20.2.1 Mechanism of Mycobased Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles
20.3 Challenges and Scale-Up for Entrepreneurship
20.4 Conclusion
References
Index
