Antimicrobials in Food

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Editors
List of Contributors
Chapter 1 Food Antimicrobials – An Introduction
1.1 Role of Additives in Food
1.2 Definition and Function of Chemical Food Preservatives
1.3 Selection of Antimicrobials
1.3.1 Antimicrobial Spectrum
1.3.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of the Antimicrobial
1.3.3 Food-Related Factors
1.3.4 Process Factors
1.3.5 Resistance Development
1.4 Considerations in the Applications of Food Antimicrobials
1.4.1 Toxicological Safety
1.4.2 Labeling with Respect to Antimicrobials
1.5 Future of Antimicrobials
References
Chapter 2 Methods for Activity Assay and Evaluation of Results
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Factors That Affect Antimicrobial Activity
2.3 Current Methodology
2.4 In Vitro Methods
2.4.1 Agar Diffusion
2.4.1.1 Dilution Methods
2.4.1.2 Gradient Plates
2.4.1.3 Automated Methods
2.4.1.4 Vapor-Phase or Volatile Compounds Methods
2.5 Descriptive Methods
2.6 Combined Antimicrobial Systems
2.7 Application Studies
2.7.1 Interpretation of Results
2.8 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3 Sodium Benzoate and Benzoic Acid
3.1 Introduction and Historical Background
3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties and Natural Occurrence
3.3 Antimicrobial Activity
3.3.1 Spectrum of Action
3.3.2 Influence of Other Chemicals and Physical Environment
3.3.3 Mechanism of Action
3.3.4 Acquired Resistance to Benzoic Acid
3.4 Microbial Metabolism of Benzoic Acid
3.5 Reaction with Food Constituents
3.6 Regulatory Status
3.7 Applications
3.7.1 Use in Various Food Systems
3.7.2 Use as a Postharvest Fungicide
3.7.3 Other Applications
3.7.4 Storage and Handling
3.8 Toxicology
3.9 Assay
3.10 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4 Sorbic Acid and Sorbates
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Chemistry
4.3 Antimicrobial Activity
4.3.1 Inhibition
4.3.2 Selective Action
4.3.3 Degradation
4.3.4 Interactions
4.3.5 Mechanisms of Action
4.4 Applications
4.4.1 Dairy Products
4.4.2 Vegetable Products
4.4.3 Fruit Products
4.4.4 Bakery Products
4.4.5 Meat Products
4.4.6 Miscellaneous Food Products
4.4.7 Other Applications
4.5 Toxicology and Safety
4.6 Detection and Analysis
4.7 Regulatory Status
References
Chapter 5 Organic Acids
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Effective Use
5.3 The Acids
5.3.1 Acetic Acid
5.3.1.1 Antimicrobial Activity in Foods
5.3.1.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.2 Acetates
5.3.2.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.2.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.3 Sodium Diacetate
5.3.3.1 Antimicrobial Activity in Foods
5.3.3.2 Regulatory Approval
5.3.4 Dehydroacetic Acid
5.3.4.1 Antimicrobial Activity against Foodborne Microorganisms
5.3.4.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.5 Adipic Acid
5.3.5.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.5.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.6 Citric Acid
5.3.6.1 Antimicrobial Properties and Activity in Foods
5.3.6.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.7 Fumaric Acid
5.3.7.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.7.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.8 Lactic Acid
5.3.8.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.8.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.9 Lactates
5.3.9.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.9.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.10 Malic Acid
5.3.10.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.10.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.11 Propionic Acid
5.3.11.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.11.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.12 Succinic Acid
5.3.12.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.12.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.3.13 Tartaric Acid
5.3.13.1 Antimicrobial Properties
5.3.13.2 Application and Regulatory Status
5.4 Mode of Action
5.5 Acid Adaptation and Tolerance
5.6 Toxicology
5.6.1 Toxicity of Organic Acids Post-Ingestion
5.6.2 Irritation and Inhalational Exposure Toxicological Effects
5.6.3 Intravenous Exposure and Toxicological Effects
5.6.4 Mutagenic and Teratogenic Activities of Organic Acids
5.7 Assay Methods
References
Chapter 6 Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites
6.1 Overview of Sulfite Use in Food
6.2 Chemical Properties of Sulfites Used in Food
6.3 Factors Affecting Antimicrobial Activity
6.4 Antimicrobial Activity of Sulfites
6.4.1 Antibacterial Activity
6.4.2 Activity against Yeasts
6.4.3 Activity against Molds
6.5 Applications
6.5.1 Use in Wine
6.5.2 Use in Beer
6.5.3 Use in Juices
6.5.4 Use in Fruit
6.6 Regulatory Status of Sulfites in Food
6.6.1 Uses and Regulatory Limits of Sulfites in the USA
6.6.2 Uses and Regulatory Limits of Sulfites outside the USA
6.7 Alternatives to Sulfites in Food and Beverages
6.8 Toxicology and Safety
6.9 Detection and Analysis in Food
6.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7 Nitrite
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Research History
7.2.1 Before 1950
7.2.1.1 Summary for before 1950
7.2.2 1950–1960
7.2.2.1 Summary for 1950–1960
7.2.3 1960–1970
7.2.3.1 Shelf-Stable Cured Meats
7.2.3.2 Perishable Cured Meats
7.2.3.3 Summary for 1960–1970
7.2.4 1970–1980
7.2.4.1 Shelf-Stable Cured Meat and Perigo Factor
7.2.4.2 Perishable Canned Cured Meat and Slurries of Meat
7.2.4.3 Vacuum-Packaged and Fermented Meats
7.2.4.4 Bacon
7.2.4.5 Test with S. aureus and Other Bacteria
7.2.4.6 Summary for 1970–1980
7.2.5 1980–1990
7.2.5.1 Assessment of the Botulinal Risk in Cured Meats
7.2.5.2 Botulinal Challenge Tests
7.2.5.3 Perigo Factor
7.2.5.4 Alternatives to Nitrite for Botulinal Protection
7.2.5.5 Mechanism of Nitrite Inhibition
7.2.5.6 Miscellaneous Studies in Laboratory Media
7.2.5.7 Spoilage of Cured Meats
7.2.5.8 Summary for 1980–1990
7.2.6 1990–2002
7.2.6.1 Fermented Meats and Dry-Cured Hams
7.2.6.2 Alternatives to the Use of Nitrate or Nitrite
7.2.6.3 Cheese
7.2.6.4 Seafood
7.2.6.5 Effect of Nitrite on Enteric Pathogens
7.2.6.6 Effect of Nitrite on Yeasts and Molds
7.2.6.7 Green Discoloration in Cured Meats
7.2.6.8 Summary for 1990–2002
7.2.7 2002–2019
7.2.7.1 Mechanisms of Nitrite Antimicrobial Activity
7.2.7.2 Antibotulinum Activity of Nitrite
7.2.7.3 Nitrite Effects on Clostridium perfringens
7.2.7.4 Antilisterial Effects of Nitrite
7.2.7.5 Nitrite Controversy and Conflicting Messages
7.2.7.6 Changing Consumer Demands
7.2.7.7 Predictive Models of Microbial Growth or Inactivation That Incorporate Nitrite
7.2.7.8 Summary for 2002–2019
7.3 Regulations Governing the Use of Nitrite and Nitrate
7.3.1 Historical Perspective on Regulations
7.3.2 Nitrite and Nitrate Regulations in the United States
7.3.2.1 US Regulations for Formulation of Cured Meat and Poultry Products
7.3.2.2 US Guidelines for Stabilization (Cooling) of Cooked Cured Meat and Poultry Products
7.3.2.3 US Requirements for Natural Sources of Nitrate or Pre-Converted Nitrite in Meat and Poultry Products
7.3.2.4 US Requirements Regarding Other Uses of Nitrate and Nitrite in Food Products
7.3.2.5 US Regulations on Nitrite and Nitrate in Water
7.3.3 Canadian Regulations Regarding Nitrite and Nitrate in Foods
7.3.4 European Union Regulations Regarding Nitrite and Nitrate in Foods
7.3.5 Regulations in Other Regions Regarding Nitrite and Nitrate Use in Foods
7.4 Assay Method
7.5 Toxicology
References
Chapter 8 Nisin
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Structure
8.3 Physicochemical Properties
8.4 Antimicrobial Activity
8.4.1 Factors Affecting the Antimicrobial Activity in Foods
8.4.1.1 Food Composition
8.4.1.2 Temperature
8.4.1.3 pH
8.4.1.4 Proteolytic Enzymes
8.4.1.5 Process
8.4.1.6 Synergy with Other Preservatives
8.4.1.7 Bacterial Load
8.5 Applications as Food Preservative
8.5.1 Dairy Products
8.5.1.1 General Considerations
8.5.1.2 Main Uses for the Preservation of Dairy Products
8.5.1.3 Uses in Combination with Other Treatments
8.5.2 Meat Products
8.5.3 Seafood Products
8.5.4 Fruits and Vegetables
8.5.5 Beverages
8.5.6 Other Food Products
8.5.7 Food Packaging Containing Nisin
8.5.7.1 General Considerations
8.5.7.2 Non-Biodegradable Films
8.5.7.3 Cellulose-Based Films
8.5.7.4 Chitosan-Based Films
8.5.7.5 Alginate-Based Films
8.5.7.6 Protein-Based Films
8.6 Regulatory Status
References
Chapter 9 Natamycin
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Physical and Chemical Properties
9.3 Antimicrobial Activity
9.4 Mode of Action
9.5 Food Applications
9.5.1 Cheese
9.5.2 Meat
9.5.3 Fruits and Fruit Juices
9.5.4 Miscellaneous Applications
9.5.5 Incorporation into Packaging Films and Coatings for Foods
9.6 Regulatory Status
9.7 Toxicology
9.8 Assay
References
Chapter 10 Lauric Arginate Ethyl Ester
10.1 Chemistry Structure and Characteristics
10.2 Antimicrobial Activity in Microbiological Media
10.3 Antimicrobial Mechanism
10.4 Application in Food Systems
10.4.1 Application Alone or with Other Chemicals on Raw Meat and Poultry Products
10.4.2 Application in Ready-to-Eat Meat Products
10.4.3 Application in Other Food Products
10.4.4 Application within Packaging Material
10.5 Regulatory Status
10.6 Evaluation of Acute Toxicity
10.7 Chemical Assays
10.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Medium-Chain Fatty Acids (>C8) and Monoesters
11.1 Introduction and History
11.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Fatty Acids
11.2.1 Antibacterial Activity
11.2.2 Antifungal Activity
11.2.3 Effect of Chemical Modifications on Antimicrobial Activity
11.2.4 Structure–Function Relationship
11.3 Fatty Acid Monoesters
11.3.1 Sucrose Monoesters
11.3.2 Polyglycerol Esters
11.3.3 Glycerol Monoesters
11.3.3.1 Antibacterial Activity
11.3.3.2 Antifungal Activity
11.3.3.3 Antiviral Activity
11.3.3.4 Combinations with Other Antimicrobials
11.3.3.5 Combination with Heat and Cold
11.4 Food Applications
11.4.1 Dairy Products
11.4.2 Meat Products
11.4.3 Seafood
11.4.4 Other Foods
11.5 Mechanism of Action
References
Chapter 12 Parabens
12.1 Chemical and Physical Properties
12.2 Antimicrobial Activity
12.2.1 Bacteria
12.2.2 Fungi
12.3 Mechanism of Action
12.4 Applications
12.5 Regulatory Status
12.6 Toxicology
12.7 Assay
References
Chapter 13 Dimethyl Dicarbonate and Diethyl Dicarbonate
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Chemistry
13.2.1 Description
13.2.2 Ethyl Carbamate Formation
13.2.3 Synthesis
13.2.4 Reactions
13.3 Antimicrobial Activity
13.3.1 Yeast
13.3.2 Bacteria
13.3.3 Molds
13.3.4 Physical and Chemical Effects on Activity
13.3.4.1 Temperature
13.3.4.2 pH
13.3.4.3 Ethanol and Other Constituents
13.4 Mechanism of Action
13.5 Applications
13.5.1 Fruit Juices
13.5.2 Grape Juice and Wines
13.5.3 Soft Drinks
13.5.4 Foods
13.5.5 Beer
13.6 Regulatory Status
13.7 Toxicology
13.7.1 Foods
13.7.2 Direct Exposure
13.7.3 Indirect Exposure
13.8 Analysis
13.8.1 Direct
13.8.2 Indirect
References
Chapter 14 Lysozyme
14.1 Background and General Properties of Lysozyme
14.2 Properties
14.2.1 Chromatographic Elution Characteristics
14.2.2 Basic Enzymatic and Hydrolytic Properties
14.2.3 Common Properties amongst Differing Lysozyme Types
14.3 Uses and Stability in Foods
14.3.1 Thermal Stability in Solution and in Food Products during Heat-Processing
14.3.2 Lysozyme Stability to Non-Thermal Processing and Food Preservatives
14.4 Antimicrobial Spectrum of Activity
14.4.1 Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria Sensitivity to Lysozyme
14.4.2 Lysozyme Sensitivity as a Function of Microbial Physiological Status
14.5 Activity against Food-Related Microorganisms
14.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Lysozyme against Gram-Positive Rods in Foods
14.5.2 Antifungal Activity against Foodborne Yeasts and Spoilage Bacteria in Foods
14.6 Effect on Heat Resistance of Bacterial Spores
14.7 Enhancement of Activity by Other Chemical Agents
14.7.1 Enhancement of Lysozyme by Chelators against Foodborne Bacteria
14.7.2 Lysozyme Use in Combination with Antimicrobial Polypeptides and Bacteriocins
14.8 Enhancement by Physical Processes
14.9 Food Applications
14.9.1 Functionality in Ready-to-Eat Further Processed Foods
14.9.2 Lysozyme Utility on Animal Carcass and Derived Product Surfaces
14.9.3 Lysozyme Applications for Food Contact Surfaces Disinfection
14.10 Non-Enzymatic Antimicrobial Activity of Lysozyme and Lysozyme-Peptides
14.10.1 Bactericidal Characteristics of Lysozyme
14.10.2 Lysozyme-Derived Antimicrobial Peptides
14.11 Recombinant Lysozymes for Use as Food Antimicrobials
14.12 Regulatory Status and Toxicology
14.13 Summary and Perspectives
References
Chapter 15 Bacteriocins and Their Applications in Foods
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Classification of Bacteriocins
15.3 Genetics, Biosynthesis, and Mode of Action
15.3.1 Organization of Gene Clusters
15.3.2 Biosynthetic Pathway
15.3.3 Post-Translational Modification, Activation, and Transport
15.3.4 Regulation of Biosynthesis
15.3.5 Producer Immunity
15.3.6 Mode of Action
15.4 Production and Modeling
15.5 Resistance
15.6 Examples of Activity Spectra and Biochemical Properties
15.6.1 Lactococcus
15.6.2 Pediococcus
15.6.3 Lactobacillus
15.6.4 Carnobacterium
15.6.5 Leuconostoc and Other Lactic Acid-Associated Bacteria
15.7 Applications in the Food Industry
15.7.1 Dairy Products
15.7.2 Meat Products
15.7.3 Fruits and Vegetables
15.8 Summation
References
Chapter 16 Bacteriophages
16.1 History of Bacteriophages
16.2 The Diversity of Bacteriophages: Phage Morphology Forms the Basis for Classification
16.3 Phage Lifecycle
16.3.1 Lytic Pathway
16.3.2 Lysogenic Pathway
16.4 Phage Application within the Food Industry
16.4.1 Fresh Produce
16.4.2 Meat and Dairy Food Products
16.4.3 Food-Contact Surfaces
16.4.4 Pre-Harvest Control
16.4.5 Bacteriophage Insensitive Mutants
16.5 Where Does Phage Technology Stand Today?
16.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 17 Naturally Occurring Compounds – Plant Sources
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Sources of Natural Antimicrobials from Plants
17.2.1 Natural Phenolic Compounds
17.2.2 Essential Oils
17.2.3 Phytoalexins
17.2.4 Phytoanticipins
17.2.5 Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs)
17.2.6 Other Sources of Plant Antimicrobial Agents
17.3 Testing the Efficacy of Antimicrobials
17.3.1 In Vitro Testing
17.3.2 Vapor Phase
17.4 Mechanisms of Action
17.5 Factors Affecting Activity
17.5.1 Plant Source Variation
17.5.2 Extraction Methods
17.5.3 Interaction with Food Matrix
17.6 Increasing the Efficacy of Natural Antimicrobials from Plants
17.6.1 Application of Essential Oils in Gaseous Phase
17.6.2 Combination with Other Antimicrobials and/or Preservation Factors
17.6.3 Delivery Systems
17.6.3.1 Emulsions
17.6.3.2 Nanosized Carriers/Coatings
17.6.3.3 Packaging Films/Coatings
17.7 Toxicity of Natural Antimicrobials and Its Evaluation and Regulatory Aspects
17.8 Application in Food and Sensory Analysis
17.9 Final Remarks
17.10 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 18 Naturally Occurring Compounds – Animal Sources
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Lactoperoxidase
18.2.1 Molecular Properties
18.2.1.1 Occurrence and Biosynthesis
18.2.1.2 Chemistry and Structure
18.2.1.3 Stability
18.2.2 Antimicrobial Activity
18.2.2.1 Mode of Action
18.2.2.2 Specificity
18.2.3 Applications in Food
18.3 Transferrins
18.3.1 Lactoferrin, Lactoferricin B, and Activated Lactoferrin
18.3.1.1 Molecular Properties
18.3.1.2 Antimicrobial Activity
18.3.1.3 Applications in Foods
18.3.1.4 Safety and Tolerance
18.3.2 Ovotransferrin
18.4 Immunoglobulins
18.4.1 Lactoglobulins
18.4.1.1 Molecular Properties
18.4.1.2 Antimicrobial Activity
18.4.1.3 Applications in Food
18.4.2 Ovoglobulins
18.4.2.1 Molecular Properties
18.4.2.2 Antimicrobial Activity
18.4.2.3 Applications in Food
18.5 Avidin
18.5.1 Molecular Properties
18.5.1.1 Occurrence and Biosynthesis
18.5.1.2 Chemistry and Structure
18.5.1.3 Stability
18.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity
18.5.2.1 Mode of Action
18.5.2.2 Specificity
18.5.3 Applications in Food
18.6 Lactolipids
18.6.1 Molecular Properties
18.6.1.1 Occurrence and Biosynthesis
18.6.1.2 Chemistry and Structure
18.6.1.3 Stability
18.6.2 Antimicrobial Activity
18.6.2.1 Mode of Action
18.6.2.2 Specificity
18.6.3 Applications in Food
18.7 Defensins
18.7.1 Molecular Properties
18.7.1.1 Occurrence and Biosynthesis
18.7.1.2 Chemistry and Structure
18.7.2 Antimicrobial Activity
18.7.3 Applications in Food
18.8 Chitosan
18.9 Other Antimicrobials of Animal Origin
18.9.1 Pleurocidin
18.9.2 Casocidin
18.9.3 Lysozyme (Consult Chapter 14, “Lysozyme” for More Information)
18.9.4 Lipids
References
Chapter 19 Use of Antimicrobials as Processing Aids in Food Processing
19.1 Importance
19.2 Regulatory Perspectives
19.3 Types of Processing Aids
19.4 Processing Aids in Meat and Poultry Products
19.4.1 Foodborne Illness and Microorganisms of Concern in Meat and Poultry
19.4.2 Animal Post-Evisceration Carcass Decontamination
19.4.2.1 Carcass Washes
19.4.2.2 Processing Aids in Scald and Chilling Water
19.4.2.3 Post-Chill Processing Aids Added for Antimicrobial Activity
19.4.3 Addition of Processing Aids During Further Processing of Meat and Poultry Products
19.4.3.1 Non-RTE Meat and Poultry Products
19.4.3.2 RTE Meat and Poultry Products
19.4.4 The Role of Acidifiers in Microbial Reduction of Meat and Poultry Products
19.4.5 Summary
19.5 Decontamination of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce
19.5.1 Fresh Produce – Benefits and Risks
19.5.2 Fresh Produce – Foodborne Illness and Microorganisms of Concern
19.5.3 Washing and Sanitizing Treatments for Fruits and Vegetables
19.5.3.1 Chlorine
19.5.3.2 Peroxyacetic Acid (PAA)
19.5.4 Summary
References
Chapter 20 Antimicrobial Delivery Systems
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The Need for Delivery Systems
20.3 Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems
20.3.1 Preparation Methods
20.3.2 Applications
20.4 Lipid-Based Delivery Systems
20.4.1 Preparation Methods
20.4.2 Applications
20.5 Polymer-Based Delivery Systems
20.5.1 Preparation Methods
20.5.2 Applications
20.6 Inorganic Particles-Based Delivery Systems
20.6.1 Preparation Methods
20.6.2 Applications
20.7 Important Properties for Antimicrobial Delivery Systems and Methods of Characterization
20.7.1 Antimicrobial Loading and Encapsulation Efficiency
20.7.2 Size, Zeta Potential, and Morphology
20.7.3 Controlled-/Triggered-Release Properties
20.7.4 Antimicrobial Delivery System Efficacy Evaluation
20.7.5 Comparison among Delivery Systems – Advantages/Disadvantages
20.8 Conclusions and Future Trends
References
Chapter 21 Hurdle Technology – or Is It? Multifactorial Food Preservation for the Twenty-First Century
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Benefits of the Hurdle Concept
21.3 Drawbacks of the Hurdle Concept
21.4 Alternative “Multifactorial” Metaphors
21.4.1 The Swiss Cheese Model
21.4.2 The Pole Vault: Hurdles Upended
21.5 Risks
21.6 Microbial Modeling to Quantify Factors and Control Risk
21.6.1 Pasteurized Processed Cheese Spread and Control of Clostridium botulinum
21.6.2 Ready-to-Eat Meat Products and Listeria Control
21.7 Multifactorial Preservation in Action
21.7.1 Market Examples of Multifactorial Products
21.7.1.1 Co-Extruded Cereal Bar with Fruit Core
21.7.1.2 Optimization of “Non-C. botulinum” Thermophilic Cook with Use of Nisin in Canned Foods
21.7.1.3 Bottled Water
21.7.1.4 Refrigerated Liquid Egg Containing Vegetable Blend
21.7.1.5 High-Pressure Processed Products
21.8 Future Development of Novel Opportunities
21.9 Concluding Remarks
21.10 Acknowledgments
21.11 Disclaimer
References
Chapter 22 Applications of Antimicrobials to Foods – A Food Industry Perspective
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Research and Development Perspectives
22.2.1 Combination Studies
22.2.2 Standardization of Efficacy Determination
22.3 Considerations for Commercial Application of Antimicrobials in Food
22.3.1 Phase 1 – Discovery or Proof of Concept
22.3.2 Phase 2 – Technology Development
22.3.2.1 Efficacy
22.3.2.2 Sensory Impact
22.3.2.3 Cost-in-Use
22.3.2.4 Capital Expenditure
22.3.2.5 Minimum Order Quantity (MOQ)
22.3.2.6 Patent Landscape
22.3.2.7 Regulatory Assessment
22.3.2.8 Challenge Studies
22.3.2.9 Sensory and Shelf Life Study
22.3.2.10 The Production Process
22.3.2.11 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
22.3.3 Phase 3 – Technology Transfer (Scale-up and Commercialization)
22.3.3.1 Food Product Matrix
22.3.3.2 Beverages
22.3.3.3 Bakery Products
22.3.3.4 Fresh and Minimally Processed Fruits and Vegetables
22.3.3.5 Dairy Products
22.3.3.6 Meat and Poultry Products
22.3.3.7 Sauces and Condiments
22.4 Conclusion
22.5 Acknowledgments
Disclaimer
References
Chapter 23 Mechanisms of Action, Resistance, and Stress Adaptation
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Mechanism of Antimicrobial Action on Potential Target Sites of Vegetative Bacteria
23.2.1 Antimicrobial Interactions with the Outer Membrane of Gram-Negative Bacteria
23.2.1.1 The Porin Pathway
23.2.1.2 The Hydrophobic Pathway
23.2.1.3 Self-Promoted Uptake Pathway
23.2.2 The Peptidoglycan Layer as a Potential Target Site
23.2.2.1 Peptidoglycan Degrading Compounds
23.2.2.2 Diffusion through the Peptidoglycan
23.2.3 Potential Targets and Mechanisms Associated with Cytoplasmic Membranes
23.2.3.1 Dissipation of Proton Motive Force
23.2.3.2 Membrane Permeabilization
23.2.3.3 Inhibition of Membrane-Embedded Proteins/Enzymes
23.2.4 Antimicrobial Mechanisms on Cytoplasmic Targets
23.2.4.1 Inhibition of Intracellular Enzymes and Proteins
23.2.4.2 Targeting Nucleic Acids
23.2.4.3 Modulating the Intracellular Environment
23.3 Antimicrobial Target Sites and Action Mechanisms in Bacterial Spores
23.4 Antimicrobial Target Sites and Action Mechanisms in Fungi
23.4.1 Mechanisms of Cell Wall and Membrane-Targeting Antifungals
23.4.2 Mechanisms of Intracellular Targeting Antifungals
23.5 Mechanism of Action Investigations
23.5.1 Identifying the Target Site
23.5.1.1 Initial Antimicrobial Activity Assessment
23.5.1.2 Cell Wall as the Target Site
23.5.1.3 Cell Membrane as the Target Site
23.5.1.4 Intracellular Target Site
23.5.1.5 Biosynthesis or Metabolic Pathways as Targets
23.5.2 Identifying the Mechanism of Action
23.5.2.1 Elucidating Membrane-Destabilizing Action Mechanisms
23.5.2.2 Intracellular Action Mechanisms
23.5.2.3 Molecular Mechanism of Action
23.5.3 Guide for Conducting a Mechanism of Action Study
23.6 Resistance and Stress Adaptation
23.6.1 Definition of Terms
23.6.2 Intrinsic Resistance and Stress Adaptation Mechanisms
23.6.2.1 LPS Modifications
23.6.2.2 Peptidoglycan
23.6.2.3 Cytoplasmic Membrane Modifications
23.6.2.4 Efflux Pumps
23.6.2.5 Proteome
23.6.2.6 The Stringent Response
23.6.2.7 Biofilm
23.6.2.8 Antimicrobial Inactivation
23.6.3 Acquired Resistance Mechanisms
References
Index