Antibiofilm Strategies: Current and Future Applications to Prevent, Control and Eradicate Biofilms

Preface
Keywords
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: Introduction
Introduction: Biofilms 101
1 History of Biofilms
1.1 Biofilms Prevalence
1.2 How to Define a Biofilm
2 Physiology of a Biofilm
2.1 Matrix
2.1.1 Chemical Gradients in the Biofilm
3 Biofilm Implications in Infections
3.1 Antibiotic Tolerance and Resistance
3.1.1 Immune Evasion/Defense
References
Antimicrobial and Innate Immune Tolerance Mechanisms in Biofilms
1 Introduction
1.1 Antimicrobial Penetration
2 Reduced Envelope Permeability by Matrix Polysaccharides
2.1 Cell Physiological States
2.1.1 Dormancy and Slow Growth
2.1.2 Metabolic Adaptation
2.1.3 Stress Responses
2.2 Innate Immune Response
2.2.1 Early Growth and Establishment
2.2.2 Immune Evasion and Modulation
2.2.3 Virulence Factor Production
3 Conclusion
References
Antibiotic Resistance Development in Bacterial Biofilms
1 Introduction
2 Mechanisms of Tolerance to Antibiotics in Biofilms
2.1 Physical Tolerance
2.2 Physiological Tolerance
2.3 Persisters
2.4 Expression of Specific Genes
2.5 Adaptive Tolerance
2.6 In Vivo Tolerance
3 Antibiotic Resistance Development in Biofilms
3.1 Mutational Resistance
3.2 Horizontal Gene Transfer
3.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Part II: Biofilm Prevention & Treatment
Prevention of Biofilms in Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections (CAUTIs): A Review
1 Introduction
2 Etiology of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection
2.1 Means of Infection
2.2 Organisms of Infection
3 Diagnosis of CAUTI
3.1 Clinical Guidelines and Symptoms
3.2 Role of Biofilms in CAUTI Diagnosis
4 Laboratory-Based Biofilm Quantification Methods
4.1 Culture
4.2 Sonication
4.3 Microscopy for Visualization and Quantification
4.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscope
4.3.2 Atomic Force Microscopy
4.3.3 Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy
4.3.4 Image Software for Biofilm Quantification
5 Current and Future Prevention Strategies
5.1 Antimicrobial Coatings (Metals/Metal Oxides)
5.2 Hydrogel Coatings
5.3 Antibiotic Coatings
5.4 Enzyme Coatings
5.5 Surface Energy Coatings
5.6 Iron Scavenging Coatings
5.7 Methods to Test Antimicrobial Surfaces
6 Treatment Strategies
6.1 Proper Catheter Use and Monitoring
6.2 Antibiotic Treatment
7 Conclusions
References
Probiotics Action Against Biofilms
1 Introduction
2 Strategies for Fighting Against Bacterial Biofilm Infections
3 The Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics Against Biofilm-related Infections
3.1 Competition with Pathogenic Organisms for Adhesion and Nutrition
3.2 Secretion of Antimicrobial Substances
3.3 Impacting Intestinal Barrier Function
3.4 Immunomodulation
4 Role of Probiotics and their Derivatives in the Eradication of Biofilms
4.1 The Inhibition of Biofilm Formation by Probiotics
4.2 Probiotics Eradicate the Formed Biofilms
4.3 Probiotic Biofilms Against Pathogenic Biofilms
5 Clinical Applications of Probiotics
6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Clinical Translation of Biofilm Dispersal Agents
1 Introduction
2 Biofilm Dispersal
2.1 Active Biofilm Dispersal
2.1.1 Environmental Cues
2.1.2 Fatty Acid Signals
2.1.3 Peptide Signals
2.1.4 Nitric Oxide
2.1.5 Cyclic Dimeric GMP
2.1.6 Pseudomonas Quinolone Signal
2.1.7 Acyl-Homoserine Lactones
2.2 Passive Biofilm Dispersal
2.2.1 Proteases
2.2.2 DNases
2.2.3 Glycoside Hydrolases
3 Biofilm Dispersal Agents in the Pipeline
3.1 Small Molecule Modulators of Dispersion
3.2 Modulators of c-di-GMP
3.3 Compounds Targeting the Protective Biofilm Matrix
3.4 Inhibiting the Function of Enzymes and Components Present in the Biofilm Matrix
3.5 Targeting the Outer Membrane
3.6 Essential Oils
4 Hurdles for Development
4.1 Regulatory Obstacles
4.2 Therapeutic Risks and Rewards
5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chemical Regulation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Formation as a Potential Treatment for Persistent Infections
1 Introduction
2 Quorum Sensing
3 c-di-GMP Signalling
4 Chemical Modulation of Quorum Sensing and c-di-GMP Signalling
5 Quorum Sensing Inhibition
6 Interference with c-di-GMP Signalling
7 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Bacteriophages for the Treatment of Biofilm-Associated Infections
1 Introduction
2 Biofilm Basics
3 Bacteriophage Basics
4 Phage-Biofilm Interactions
5 Overcoming the Limitations of Using Phages for Therapy
6 Phages in Action
7 Outlook
References
Hyperbaric Oxygen Treatment May Advance the Outcome of Antibiotic Treatment of Biofilm Infections
1 Introduction
2 Internal Microenvironment
3 External Microenvironment
4 Reversing Lack of O2 by HBOT Improves Treatment Outcome
5 Mimicking the Infectious Microenvironment Impacts Susceptibility Testing
6 Oxygen Therapy as an Adjunctive to Antibiotic Treatment of Bacterial Biofilms
References
Cold Plasma Therapy as a Physical Antibiofilm Approach
1 Introduction
2 Cold Plasma
3 Biofilm Destruction by Plasma
3.1 Biofilm Damage by Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species (RONS)
3.2 Ultraviolet Radiation
3.3 Quorum Sensing Disruption
4 Plasma-Activated Liquids
4.1 Physicochemical Properties of Plasma-Activated Liquids
4.2 Antibiofilm Activity of Plasma-Activated Liquids
5 Plasma and Plasma-Activated Liquid Cleaning and Coating of Medical Devices and Surfaces
6 Plasma Medicine in Dental Infections
6.1 Dental Caries
6.2 Root Canal Infections (E. faecalis)
6.3 Periodontal Disease Bacteria
6.4 C. albicans
7 Plasma Medicine in Dermatological Infections
7.1 Plasma Therapy in Wound Healing
8 Challenges to Biofilm Destruction by Cold Plasma
8.1 Plasma Tolerance
9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Antibodies Against Biofilms: Mechanisms and Applications
1 Introduction to Antibodies and B Cells
1.1 Antibody Structure and Functional Classification
1.2 Antibodies Are Naturally Produced by B Cells
1.3 Monoclonal Antibodies Can Be Produced Synthetically upon Request
2 Mechanisms of Antibody-Mediated Functions
2.1 Fab-Mediated Pathogen Blocking
2.2 Fc-Mediated Pathogen Blocking
3 Antibacterial Antibodies in the Clinic and Biotech
4 Antibodies as Weapons Against Biofilm
5 Anti-biofilm Antibodies Targeting Bacterial Cell Surface Associated Components
5.1 Antibodies Directed Against Other Cell-Associated Proteins
5.2 Antibodies Directed Against Cell-Associated Polysaccharides
6 Anti-biofilm Antibodies Targeting Secreted Bacterial Extracellular Components
6.1 Antibodies Directed Against DNA Binding Proteins
6.2 Antibodies Directed Against Exopolysaccharides
6.3 Antibodies Directed Against Extracellular Enzymes
6.4 Antibodies Directed to Toxins
7 Antibodies Against Fungi-Associated Biofilm
8 Conclusions
References
Host Defense Peptides: Multifront Attack on Biofilms
1 Introduction
2 Main Body
2.1 General Features and Terminology of Host Defense Peptides
2.2 HDPs Orchestrate Multifront Attacks on Biofilms
2.3 Diversity of HDP-Mediated Antibiofilm Activities
2.4 Regulatory Pathways Driving Biofilm Growth
2.5 Biofilm-Specific Mechanisms of Action and Target Pathways of HDPs
2.5.1 Effects on the Stringent Response
2.5.2 Other Antibiofilm Mechanisms
2.6 Direct Antimicrobial Activity of HDPs
2.7 Immunomodulatory Mechanisms of HDPs Relevant for the Treatment of Biofilm Infections
3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
4 Compliance with Ethical Standards
References
Learning from Nature: Naturally Derived Remedies
1 Introduction
2 Honey
2.1 Antibiofilm Properties of Honey
2.2 Clinical Application of Honey in Otolaryngology
2.2.1 Chronic Rhinosinusitis
2.2.2 Otologic Diseases
2.2.3 Radiation-induced Oral Mucositis
2.3 Diabetic Foot Ulcers and Chronic Wounds
2.4 Honey and Skin Disease
3 Essential Oils
4 Tea
5 Other Natural Products
6 Conclusion
References
Historical Medical Remedies as Potential Anti-Biofilm Approaches: Can We Look Back to Move Forward?
1 Introduction
2 Descriptions in Historical Texts of Common Infections Known to Be Associated with Biofilms
3 Evaluation of Historical Remedies for Infections Associated with Biofilms
4 Plant-Based Remedies with Anti-Biofilm Potential
5 Animal-Based Remedies with Anti-Biofilm Potential
6 Inanimate Material-Based Approaches with Anti-Biofilm Potential
7 Conclusions
References
Part III: Biofilm Control
The Action of Phytochemicals in the Control of Pathogenic Biofilms
1 Introduction
2 Biofilm-Related Infections
2.1 Critical Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens
2.2 Biofilm Formation and Specific Mechanisms
3 Antibacterial Strategies Based on Natural Products to Target Biofilms
3.1 Targeting Bacterial Biofilms with Phytochemicals
3.1.1 Effects of Phytochemicals in QS Mechanisms
3.1.2 Effects of Phytochemicals on Motility
3.1.3 Effects of Phytochemicals on Adhesion
3.1.4 Effects of Phytochemicals on the EPS Production
4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Current and Future Applications to Control Polymicrobial Biofilms Associated with Oral Disease
1 The Oral Microbiome: Understanding the Complexity
2 Oral Diseases Caused by Bacterial Biofilms
2.1 Dental Caries
2.2 Periodontal Disease
2.3 Endodontic Infections
2.4 Denture Stomatitis
2.5 Current Management of Denture Stomatitis
2.6 Future Applications to Control Denture Stomatitis
3 Current Strategies for Preventing Disease
3.1 Clinical Intervention for the Management of Dental Caries
3.2 Clinical Intervention for the Management of Periodontal Disease
3.3 Clinical Intervention for the Management of Endodontic Disease
3.4 Non-clinical Intervention to Prevent Oral Diseases
4 Mouthwash Antiseptics
4.1 Cetylpyridinium Chloride
4.2 Chlorhexidine
4.3 Fluoride
5 In Vitro Oral Biofilm Systems
5.1 Batch Culture Models
5.1.1 Zurich Biofilm Model
5.1.2 The Calgary Biofilm Device
5.2 The Artificial Mouth Model
5.3 Flow Cells
6 Future Applications for the Control of Oral Biofilms to Prevent Disease
6.1 Silver Nanoparticles
6.2 Probiotics
6.2.1 Probiotics in the Treatment of Dental Caries
6.2.2 Probiotics in the Treatment of Periodontal Disease
6.2.3 Mechanisms of Action
6.3 Oral Microbiome Transplant
6.4 D-amino Acids
6.5 Quorum Sensing Inhibitors
6.6 Endodontic Irrigant/Medicaments
7 Conclusion
References
Clinical Management of Fungal Biofilm Infections
1 Introduction
2 Oropharyngeal Infections
3 Respiratory Tract Infections
4 Vulvovaginal Infections
5 Wound and Skin-Related Infections
6 Medical Device-Related Infections
7 Candida auris: The New Superfungus on the Block
8 Concluding Comments
References
Metal-Based Nanoparticles for Biofilm Treatment and Infection Control: From Basic Research to Clinical Translation
1 Introduction
2 Silver Nanoparticles
2.1 Mechanism of Antibacterial Action
2.2 Silver Nanoparticles in Combination with Other Antimicrobial Agents
2.3 Clinical Trials and Applications of Silver Nanoparticles
3 Gold Nanoparticles
3.1 Gold Nanoparticle Effects on Biofilms
3.2 Gold Nanoparticles in Combination with Other Antimicrobial Agents
3.3 Gold Nanoparticle Delivery Systems and Applications
4 Other Metal-Based Nanoparticles
4.1 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
4.2 Copper-Based Nanoparticles
4.3 Iron Nanoparticles
4.4 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
4.5 Selenium Nanoparticles
5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Nitric Oxide-Mediated Dispersal as an Adjunctive Strategy for the Control of Biofilm-Associated Infection
1 Introduction
2 Nitric Oxide-Mediated Biofilm Dispersal
3 The NO Response Is Dose-Dependent
4 Mechanism of NO-Mediated Dispersal
5 Direct Use of Gaseous NO
6 Nitric Oxide Donor Chemistries
6.1 Sodium Nitroprusside
6.2 Furoxans
6.3 Acidified Nitrite
6.4 Diazeniumdiolates (NONOates)
6.5 Cephalosporin-3′-Diazeniumdiolates
7 Photodynamic Therapy
8 NO-Releasing Dressings
9 Safety Considerations and NO-Mediated Dispersal as an Adjunctive Strategy
10 Conclusions/Future Perspectives
References
Biofouling Control in Water Filtration Systems
1 Introduction
2 Fouling of RO Membranes
2.1 Adhesion to Membranes
2.2 Bacterial Proliferation and Biofilm Formation
2.3 The Biofilm Composition
3 Fouling Prevention
3.1 Feed Water Treatment
3.2 Surface Modification
3.2.1 Anti-Adhesive Surfaces
3.2.2 Biocidal Surfaces
3.2.3 Quorum-Quenching Surfaces
3.2.4 Combination Strategies
4 Membrane Cleaning
4.1 Physical Cleaning
4.2 Chemical Cleaning
4.3 Biological Cleaning
5 Conclusion
References
Biofilm in Equine and Other Veterinary Wounds
1 Introduction
2 Impaired Healing in Horses
3 Human Chronic Wounds and Similarities to Equine Limb Wounds
4 Biofilm in Human Chronic Wounds
5 Biofilm in Equine Wounds
6 Biofilm in Other Veterinary Wounds
7 Relevant Models of Biofilm Infection in Human Chronic Wounds: The Horse Has Its Place
8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References