Ancient Supercontinents and the Paleogeography of Earth

Cover
Ancient Supercontinents and the Paleogeography of Earth
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Precambrian supercontinents and supercycles—an overview
1.1 The history of the supercontinent research—the five milestones
1.2 The Earth and the solar system
1.3 Some tectonic concepts
1.4 Precambrian supercontinents and their cyclicity—observational evidence
1.5 How to reconstruct Precambrian terranes?
1.6 Models of the Precambrian supercontinents—some remarks
1.7 Precambrian paleomagnetism and paleogeography: a guideline
1.7.1 Target rocks
1.7.2 Steps 1 and 2
1.7.3 Steps 3−6
1.7.4 Step 7
1.7.5 Step 8
1.8 Precambrian paleomagnetism applied to paleoreconstructions—an example
1.8.1 Example 1: closest approach technique for reconstructions
1.8.2 Matching apparent polar wander paths—another technique for reconstructions
1.9 Precambrian paleomagnetic databases
1.9.1 Precambrian pole distributions
1.9.2 Some aspects of Precambrian paleomagnetic data
1.10 Global and terrane geological maps for reconstructions
1.11 Precambrian supercontinent cycle
1.11.1 The Precambrian supercontinents and supercycles
1.11.2 Secular evolution trends during the Precambrian
1.11.2.1 Proxies of core and mantle
1.11.2.2 Proxies of crustal extraction
1.11.2.3 Proxies reflecting plate tectonics
1.11.2.4 Paleolatitude proxies
1.11.2.5 Paleoclimate and other proxies
1.11.2.6 Kinematic proxies
1.11.3 Are the supercontinents the same, similar, or different?
1.11.4 Precambrian events and supercontinent cycle
1.12 Conclusions and suggestions for future work
1.13 How we proceed in this book
Acknowledgments
Appendices
References
2 A mantle dynamics perspective on the drift of cratons and supercontinent formation in Earth’s history
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Methodology
2.2.1 Geodynamic modeling
2.2.2 Specific model setup
2.2.2.1 Continent configuration
2.2.3 Continental drift diagnostics
2.2.4 Computed evolutions
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Average mantle structure
2.3.2 Temporal changes in surface plate motions and continental drift
2.3.3 Geodynamic surface evolutions
2.3.3.1 Homogeneous continent-size distribution (case A)
2.3.3.2 Heterogeneous continent-size distribution (case B)
2.3.3.3 More vigorous mantle flow (case C)
2.4 Long-term cooling of the mantle (case D)
2.5 Discussion
2.5.1 Supercontinent formation scenarios and grouping of continental units
2.5.2 Inclination frequency sampling and inferences on the GAD hypothesis
2.5.3 Challenges in the comparison to paleomagnetic data
2.5.4 Model limitations and future directions
2.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
3 Precambrian geomagnetic field—an overview
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Precambrian geomagnetic field—characteristic features
3.3 Inclination frequency analysis
3.4 Field reversals
3.5 Paleosecular variation
3.6 Paleointensity
3.7 Continental drift
3.8 Results
3.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
4 The Precambrian paleogeography of Laurentia
4.1 Introduction and broad tectonic history
4.1.1 Laurentia’s initial formation
4.1.2 Protracted Proterozoic accretionary growth followed by collisional orogenesis
4.1.3 Neoproterozoic rifting
4.1.4 Similarities in Laurentia’s Proterozoic and Phanerozoic tectonic histories
4.2 Paleomagnetic pole compilation
4.3 Differential motion before Laurentia amalgamation
4.4 Paleogeography of an assembled Laurentia
4.5 Comparing paleogeographic models to the paleomagnetic compilation
4.6 Paleoenvironmental constraints on paleolatitude
4.7 Evaluating Laurentia’s Proterozoic paleogeographic neighbors
4.7.1 Paleogeographic connections prior to initial Laurentia assembly
4.7.2 Amazonia
4.7.3 Australia and East Antarctica
4.7.4 Baltica
4.7.5 Kalahari
4.7.6 North China
4.7.7 Siberia
4.8 The record implies plate tectonics throughout the Proterozoic
4.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Notes
Glossary
References
5 The Precambrian drift history and paleogeography of Baltica
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Geological evolution of Baltica
5.2.1 General geological outline for Baltica
5.2.2 Geological evolution of Fennoscandia and formation of Baltica
5.2.2.1 Geological evolution of the Archean Karelian and Kola cratons of Fennoscandia
5.2.2.2 Crustal growth of Fennoscandia—the Svecofennian orogen
5.2.3 Geological evolution of Volgo-Sarmatia and formation of Baltica
5.2.4 Geological evolution of Baltica
5.2.4.1 Baltica within Nuna—different tectonic regimes
5.2.4.2 Igneous activity and rifting in Baltica reflecting initiation of the breakup on Nuna?
5.2.4.3 Late Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic geological evolution of Baltica—the Rodinia cycle
5.3 Material and methods
5.3.1 Paleomagnetic poles of Baltica—latitudinal drift history and drift rate
5.3.2 Paleoclimatic indicators of Baltica—testing the reconstructed latitudinal drift history
5.4 Paleomagnetic evidence for the drift of Baltica
5.4.1 Review of the paleomagnetic poles of Baltica
5.4.1.1 Archean–Paleoproterozoic poles of subcratons of Baltica
5.4.1.2 Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic poles for amalgamated Baltica
5.4.2 Latitudinal drift of Baltica
5.4.2.1 Archean–Paleoproterozoic latitudinal drift and amalgamation of Baltica
5.4.2.2 Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic latitudinal drift of amalgamated Baltica
5.5 Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic climatic indicators for Baltica
5.6 Drift velocities of Baltica and its subcratons with implication to tectonics
5.6.1 Archean–Paleoproterozoic drift velocities with implication to tectonics
5.6.2 Late Paleoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic drift velocities with implication to tectonics
5.7 Implications for Baltica in Superia supercraton and Nuna and Rodinia supercontinents
5.7.1 Karelian and Kola in Superia
5.7.2 Baltica in Nuna and Rodinia cycles
5.7.2.1 Baltica–Laurentia–Siberia
5.7.2.2 Baltica–Congo–São Francisco
5.7.2.3 Baltica–India in Nuna and Rodinia cycles
5.7.2.4 Baltica–Amazonia in Nuna and Rodinia cycles
5.8 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
Supplementary table
References
6 The Precambrian drift history and paleogeography of Amazonia
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Amazonian Craton
6.3 Quality criteria of paleomagnetic poles
6.4 Amazonian paleomagnetic data and apparent polar wander path
6.4.1 Amazonian latitude drift
6.4.2 Amazonian apparent polar wander path and the polarity time scale
6.4.3 Amazonia pre-Columbia
6.4.4 Amazonia in a long-lived Columbia?
6.4.5 Amazonian Craton in the Rodinia supercontinent
6.4.6 Amazonian Craton in Gondwana
6.5 Final remarks
Acknowledgments
References
7 The Precambrian drift history and paleogeography of Río de la Plata craton
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Geology of the Río de la Plata craton
7.2.1 Piedra Alta Terrane (PA)
7.2.2 Tandilia terrane (T)
7.2.3 Nico Perez terrane (NP) and Dom Feliciano Belt (DFB)
7.3 Material
7.4 Results
7.5 Discussion
7.5.1 RP and Precambrian continents
7.5.2 Paleoclimatic record of RP
7.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
8 Precambrian paleogeography of Siberia
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Geology of the Siberian Craton
8.3 Paleomagnetic data and paleolatitudes of Siberian Craton
8.4 Possible neighbors of Siberian Craton
8.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
9 Whence Australia: Its Precambrian drift history and paleogeography
9.1 Introduction to the Precambrian geology of Australia
9.2 Material
9.2.1 Paleomagnetic studies
9.2.1.1 Archean poles
Archean Hamersley banded-iron formations and iron ores
9.2.1.2 Paleo-Mesoproterozoic
Kimberley Craton
Paleo-Mesoproterozoic McArthur Basin/Pine Creek Inlier
9.2.1.3 Mesoproterozoic
Middleback Ranges
Gawler Craton
Warakurna large igneous province
The Albany-Fraser Belt
9.2.1.4 Neoproterozoic
Mundine Dyke Swarm, WA
Central Australian successions
Dykes of the Yilgarn Craton, WA
South Australian successions
9.2.2 Data selection
9.3 Results: original and age-binned apparent polar wander paths
9.3.1 Raw apparent polar wander curve
9.3.2 Age-binned APW curve
9.4 Discussion
9.4.1 Implications for supercontinents
9.4.1.1 Australian Cratons in Kenorland (c. 2.77–2.47Ga)
9.4.1.2 Australian Cratons in Nuna
9.4.1.3 Australian Cratons in Rodinia
9.4.2 Neoproterozoic intracontinental rotation
9.4.3 Implications for assembly and potential separation events of the Australian cratons
9.4.4 Paleoclimate indicators
9.4.5 Australian paleolatitudes in a global perspective
9.5 Summary
References
10 The Precambrian drift history and paleogeography of India
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Data selection
10.2.1 Southern Indian Block (Dharwar, Bastar, and Singhbhum cratons)
10.2.1.1 Dharwar craton results
10.2.1.1.1 Bastar craton
10.2.1.1.2 Singhbhum craton
10.2.2 Northern Indian Block (Aravalli-Delhi-Marwar-Banded Gneiss Complex/Bundelkhand craton)
10.3 Orogenic belts of Peninsular India
10.4 Geomagnetic field, paleoclimate and Greater India Assembly
10.5 India in a global context
10.5.1 2.367 Ga schematic
10.5.2 2.253–2.207 Ga schematic
10.5.3 2.08 Ga schematic
10.5.4 1.88–1.86 Ga schematic
10.5.5 1.77 Ga schematic
10.5.6 1.45 Ga schematic
10.5.6.1 Late Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic poles
10.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
11 The Precambrian drift history and paleogeography of the Chinese cratons
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Precambrian geology of the north China craton
11.2.1 Essentials and boundaries
11.2.2 The metamorphic basement
11.2.3 Precambrian cover successions
11.2.3.1 Precambrian strata in the Jixian region
11.2.3.2 Precambrian strata in the Yuxi region
11.2.3.3 Precambrian strata in the Xuzhou region
11.2.3.4 The Precambrian strata in the Huainan region
11.2.3.5 Precambrian strata in the Dalian-Benxi region
11.2.4 Precambrian unmetamorphosed dykes and sills
11.2.4.1 The ∼1.76–1.78-Ga Taihang-Lvliang dyke swarm
11.2.4.2 The ∼1.68-Ga Laiwu dykes and the ∼1.63-Ga Taishan dykes
11.2.4.3 The ∼1.32-Ga Yanliao sill swarm
11.2.4.4 The ∼1.22-Ga dykes
11.2.4.5 The 950–890-Ma sill swarms and dykes
11.2.4.6 The ∼780-Ma dykes
11.3 Precambrian paleomagnetic database and apparent polar wander path of the north China craton
11.3.1 Overview of the database
11.3.1.1 Poles from the strata in the Jixian region
11.3.1.2 Poles from the strata in the Yuxi region
11.3.1.3 Poles from the strata in Xuzhou, Huainan, Dalian, and Benxi regions
11.3.1.4 Poles from the Proterozoic dykes and sills
11.3.2 Precambrian apparent polar wander path of the NCC
11.4 Precambrian drift history of the NCC
11.4.1 Paleolatitudinal changes and rotations of the NCC in middle Proterozoic
11.4.2 Locations of the NCC in the Precambrian supercontinents
11.5 Precambrian drift history of the south China craton
11.5.1 Precambrian geology of the south China craton
11.5.1.1 Subdivision of the craton basement
11.5.1.2 Neoproterozoic cover successions
11.5.1.3 The unmetamorphosed dykes and sills in the SCC
11.5.2 Precambrian paleomagnetic database of the South China craton
11.5.2.1 Poles from the sedimentary strata in the SCC
11.5.2.2 Poles from the dykes in SCC
11.5.2.3 The preliminary APWP of SCC
11.5.3 Precambrian drift history of the South China craton
11.6 Precambrian drift history of the Tarim craton
11.6.1 Precambrian geology of the Tarim craton
11.6.1.1 Essentials and problems
11.6.1.2 The north Tarim terrane
11.6.1.3 The south Tarim terrane
11.6.2 Precambrian paleomagnetic data of the Tarim craton and APWP
11.6.3 Neoproterozoic drift history of the Tarim craton: models and problems
11.7 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
12 The Precambrian drift history and paleogeography of the Kalahari Craton
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Crustal architecture and geology of the Kalahari Craton
12.2.1 Proto-Kalahari Craton
12.2.1.1 Kaapvaal Craton
12.2.1.2 Zimbabwe Craton
12.2.1.3 Limpopo Metamorphic Complex
12.2.1.4 Paleoproterozoic crust
12.2.2 Kalahari Craton
12.2.2.1 Mesoproterozoic rocks
12.2.2.2 Non-African crustal blocks and belts
12.2.3 Neoproterozoic record
12.3 Paleomagnetic data
12.4 Results
12.4.1 Archean paleomagnetic poles
12.4.1.1 Paleoarchean poles
12.4.1.2 Mesoarchean poles
12.4.1.3 Neoarchean poles
12.4.2 Proterozoic paleomagnetic poles
12.4.2.1 Paleoproterozoic poles
12.4.2.2 Mesoproterozoic poles
12.4.2.3 Neoproterozoic poles
12.5 Discussion
12.5.1 Apparent polar wander path
12.5.2 Latitudinal drift and continental reconstructions
12.5.2.1 Archean drift
12.5.2.2 No more Vaalbara?
12.5.2.3 Early Paleoproterozoic drift and the existence of Kenorland
12.5.2.4 Late Paleoproterozoic drift and the position of proto-Kalahari in Columbia
12.5.2.5 Mesoproterozoic drift and the amalgamation of Rodinia
12.5.2.6 Kalahari’s drift following Rodinia breakup and Gondwana amalgamation
12.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
13 Constraints on the Precambrian paleogeography of West African Craton
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Geology of West African Craton
13.2.1 Man-Leo Shield
13.2.2 Reguibat Shield
13.2.3 Anti-Atlas Belt
13.3 Review of paleomagnetic data
13.4 LIP records in West African Craton
13.5 Paleoclimate indicators
13.6 Precambrian paleogeography of West African Craton
13.6.1 Paleogeographic connection between West African Craton and Amazonia
13.6.2 West African Craton in Precambrian supercontinents
13.7 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
14 The Precambrian drift history and paleogeography of Congo−São Francisco craton
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Congo−São Francisco craton
14.3 Paleomagnetic poles
14.3.1 Quality criteria applied to the poles
14.3.2 Spatial and temporal distribution of poles
14.3.3 Paleoclimatic indicators
14.3.4 Geomagnetic polarity through time
14.3.5 Apparent polar wander tracks
14.4 The Congo−São Francisco craton in supercontinents
14.4.1 Congo−São Francisco craton in Columbia
14.4.2 Congo−São Francisco craton in Rodinia
14.4.3 Congo−São Francisco craton in Gondwana
14.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
15 Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic supercycles
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Previous models of Archean–Paleoproterozoic crustal assemblies
15.2.1 Single Archean–Paleoproterozoic supercontinent
15.2.1.1 Kenorland
15.2.1.2 Protopangea—lid tectonics
15.2.2 Archean–Paleoproterozoic supercratons
15.2.2.1 Vaalbara
15.2.2.2 Superia
15.2.2.3 Zimgarn and Vaalbara—part of Superia?
15.2.2.4 From Sclavia to Nunavutia
15.3 Methods and material
15.4 Testing of the proposed models with paleomagnetic data
15.4.1 Superia
15.4.2 Vaalbara
15.4.3 Zimgarn
15.4.4 Vaalbara and Zimgarn—part of Superia?
15.4.5 Sclavia–Nunavutia
15.4.6 Drift velocities and tectonic style
15.5 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
16 Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Nuna supercycle
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The previous models of Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic Nuna
16.2.1 Common elements in previous Nuna models
16.2.2 Alternative elements in previous Nuna models
16.2.2.1 Amazonia–West Africa in previous Nuna models
16.2.2.2 Congo–São Francisco in previous Nuna models
16.2.2.3 India in previous Nuna models
16.2.2.4 North China and Kalahari in previous Nuna models
16.3 Methods
16.4 Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic geological evolution
16.4.1 The core of Nuna: Laurentia–Baltica–Siberia
16.4.1.1 Laurentia
16.4.1.2 Baltica and northern Laurentia
16.4.1.3 Siberia and northern Laurentia
16.4.2 Other continents in Nuna
16.4.2.1 Australia
16.4.2.2 Amazonia–West Africa
16.4.2.3 Congo–São Francisco
16.4.2.4 Kalahari
16.4.2.5 North China Craton
16.4.2.6 India
16.5 Reconstructing the Nuna supercycle
16.5.1 Reconstruction at 1.86 Ga
16.5.2 Reconstruction at 1.78 Ga
16.5.3 Reconstruction at 1.71 Ga
16.5.4 Reconstruction at 1.63 Ga, Nuna is formed
16.5.5 Reconstruction at 1.49 Ga
16.5.6 Reconstruction at 1.35 Ga, Nuna is breaking up
16.5.7 Reconstruction at 1.27 Ga
16.5.8 Reconstruction at 1.21 Ga
16.6 Alternative models for Nuna
16.6.1 SAMBA instead of Atlantica?
16.6.2 Congo part of Nuna?
16.6.3 India in southern or northern Nuna?
16.7 The life-cycle of Nuna—comparison of paleomagnetic poles
16.8 Octupole field at 1.9–1.2 Ga affecting paleoreconstructions?
16.9 Drift velocities with the implication of tectonic style
16.10 Paleoclimatic constraints on Nuna core on the reconstructions
16.11 Summary and remarks
Acknowledgements
References
17 Meso-Neoproterozoic Rodinia supercycle
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Laurentia
17.3 Baltica
17.4 Siberia
17.5 Amazonia
17.6 West Africa
17.7 Kalahari
17.8 São Francisco/Congo and Rio Plata
17.9 Proto-Australia
17.10 India
17.11 “Missing-link” possibilities for Chinese cratons
17.12 Smaller cratonic fragments
17.13 Existing Rodinia models
17.14 Paleomagnetic tests
17.15 2020 hindsight: a synthetic Rodinia model
17.16 Geodynamic implications
17.17 Rodinia development into its fourth decade
Acknowledgments
References
18 Phanerozoic paleogeography and Pangea
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Main tectonic units
18.3 Apparent polar wander paths
18.4 True polar wander and global APWPs
18.5 The plate reconstructions
18.6 The Paleozoic
18.7 Pangea assembly and geometry
18.8 The Mesozoic
18.9 Pangea dispersal
18.10 The Cenozoic
Acknowledgments
References
19 An expanding list of reliable paleomagnetic poles for Precambrian tectonic reconstructions
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Methods
19.3 Data and discussion
Acknowledgments
References
Index