An Introduction to Chemistry

Preface
Contents
About the Authors
1 The World of Chemistry
1.1  Introduction
Case Study—The Community of Chemists
1.2  Communication via the Language of Chemistry
1.2.1  Physical and Chemical Properties
Example 1.1—Chemical and Physical Changes
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Are Our Answers Reasonable?
What If…
Practice 1.1
1.2.2  Classification of Matter
1.3  The Scientific Method
Example 1.2—A Theory or a Law?
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…
Practice 1.2
1.4  Units and Measurement
1.4.1  The Système International and Its Base Units
1.4.2  Mass
1.4.3  Length
1.4.4  Time
1.4.5  Temperature
1.4.6  Amount of Substance
1.4.7  Electric Current
1.4.8  Luminous Intensity
Example 1.3—Temperature Conversions
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If….
Practice 1.3
1.4.9  Derived Units
1.4.10  Volume
1.4.11  Density
Example 1.4—Identifying a Metal via Density
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…
Practice 1.4
1.4.12  Extensive and Intensive Properties
Example 1.5—Extensive Versus Intensive Properties
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…
Practice 1.5
1.5  Conversions and Dimensional Analysis
Example 1.6—Practice with Dimensional Analysis
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…
Practice 1.6
Example 1.7—Powers in Dimensional Analysis
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…
Practice 1.7
1.6  Uncertainty, Precision, Accuracy, and Significant Figures
1.6.1  Uncertainty
1.6.2  Accuracy and Precision
1.6.3  Significant Figures
1.6.4  Calculations Involving Significant Figures
1.6.5  When to Round
Example 1.8—Significant Digits in Calculations
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is the Answer Reasonable?
What If…
Practice 1.8
1.7  Chemical Challenges for a Sustainable World
Anchor 77
2 A Quest for Understanding
2.1  Introduction
2.2  Early Attempts to Explain Matter
2.2.1  The Law of Conservation of Mass
2.2.2  The Law of Definite Composition
Example 2.1—Investigating the Law of Definite Composition
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 2.1
2.3  Dalton’s Atomic Theory and Beyond
2.3.1  The Law of Combining Volumes
2.4  The Structure of the Atom
2.4.1  Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons
2.4.2  Radioactivity and the Structure of the Atom
2.5  Atoms and Isotopes
2.5.1  Isotopes
Example 2.2—Atomic Bookkeeping
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 2.2
2.6  Atomic Mass
Example 2.3—Calculating the Atomic Mass Value
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 2.3
2.7  The Periodic Table
2.8  Ionic Compounds
Example 2.4—Ions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 2.4
Example 2.5—Determining Formulas
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 2.5
2.9  Molecules
2.10  Naming Compounds
2.10.1  Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
Example 2.6—Naming Binary Covalent Compounds
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 2.6
2.10.2 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Example 2.7—Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 2.7
Example 2.8—Naming Additional Compounds
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 2.8
2.10.3 Polyatomic Ions
Example 2.9—Naming More Compounds
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 2.9
2.11  Naming Hydrates and Acids
Example 2.10—Acids and Hydrates
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 2.10
Anchor 82
3 Chemical Calculations—Introducing Quantitative Chemistry
3.1  Introduction
3.2  Formula Masses
Example 3.1—Calculating Formula Masses
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.1
3.3  Counting by Weighing
3.3.1  The Quantity We Call the Mole
Example 3.2—How Many Molecules?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.2
3.4  Working with Moles
3.4.1  Molecules to Moles and Back Again
3.4.2  Grams to Moles and Back Again
Example 3.3—Molecules and Moles
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.3
Example 3.4—Calculating Masses Corresponding to Moles
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.4
Example 3.5—Calculating Moles Corresponding to Masses
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.5
Example 3.6—Grams to Molecules
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.6
3.5  Percentages by Mass
Example 3.7—Calculating Mass Percent
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.7
3.6  Finding the Formula
Example 3.8—Finding the Empirical and Molecular Formula
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.8
Example 3.9—Determining the Formula of Heme
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.9
3.7  Chemical Equations
3.7.1  Balancing Equations
3.7.2  More Information from the Equation
3.7.3  The Meaning of a Chemical Equation
Example 3.10—Balancing Equations
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.10
3.8  Working with Chemical Equations
3.8.1  Limiting Reagent
3.8.2  Percent Yield
Example 3.11—Determining Products from Reactants
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.11
Example 3.12—Determining Products from Reactants: Focus on Mole Ratios
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.12
Example 3.13—Calculations using Chemical Equations
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.13
Example 3.14—Calculating Yield and Limiting Reactant
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.14
Example 3.15—Percent Yield
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 3.15
Issues and Controversies—Everyday Controversies of Quantitative Chemistry
Finding the Formula
Anchor 110
4 Solution Stoichiometry and Types of Reactions
4.1  Introduction
4.2  Water—A Most Versatile Solvent
4.2.1  Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
4.2.2  Defining Electrolytes
4.3  The Concentration of Solutions
Example 4.1—Calculating Molarity
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.1
Example 4.2—Calculating Moles
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.2
Example 4.3—Calculating Volumes
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.3
4.3.1 Parts per Million, Parts per Billion, and so on
Example 4.4—Converting ppm to Molarity
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.4
4.3.2 Dilution
Example 4.5—Practice with Dilution of Solutions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.5
4.4  Stoichiometric Analysis of Solutions
How do We Know?—How to Test for Small Amounts of Water
Example 4.6—Practice with Titration
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.6
4.5  Types of Chemical Reactions
4.5.1  Molecular and Ionic Equations
Example 4.7—The Three Equations
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.7
4.6  Precipitation Reactions
Example 4.8—Identifying Precipitation Reactions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.8
Example 4.9—The Stoichiometry of a Precipitation Reaction
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Solution
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Practice 4.9
4.7  Acid-Base Reactions
4.7.1  Strong Acids and Bases
4.7.2  Weak Acids and Bases
4.7.3  When Acids and Bases Combine
Example 4.10—Stoichiometry of a Neutralization Reaction
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Solution
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Practice 4.10
4.8  Reduction-Oxidation Reactions
4.8.1  Oxidation Numbers
Example 4.11—Assigning Oxidation States
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Solution
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What if…?
Practice 4.11
4.8.2 Identifying Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Example 4.12—Identifying Redox Reactions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 4.12
4.9  Fresh Water—Issues of Quantitative Chemistry
Anchor 94
5 Energy
5.1  Introduction
5.2  The Concept of Energy
5.2.1  Kinetic Energy Versus Potential Energy
Example 5.1—Energy in Various Forms
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.1
NanoWorld/MacroWorld—Big Effects of the Very Small: Electrons Capturing Energy in Photosynthesis
5.2.2 Heat and Reaction Profile Diagrams
5.3  A Closer Look at Work
Example 5.2—Work, Work, and More Work
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.2
5.3.1 Internal Energy
Example 5.3—The First Law of Thermodynamics
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.3
5.4  The Units of Energy
Example 5.4—Peanut Power!
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.4
5.5  Specific Heat Capacity and Heat Capacity
Example 5.5—How Cold is the Liquid?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.5
5.5.1 Calorimetry
Example 5.6—Coffee Cup Calorimetry Calculations
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.6
Example 5.7—Calculations with a Bomb Calorimeter
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.7
5.6  Enthalpy
5.6.1  Standard Enthalpies of Reaction
Example 5.8—Chemistry in Space
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.8
5.6.2  Manipulating Enthalpies
Example 5.9—How Much Heat?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.9
5.7  Hess’s Law
5.7.1  Using Hess’s Law
Example 5.10—Using Hess’s Law
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.10
5.7.2 Reaction Enthalpies from Enthalpies of Formation
Example 5.11—Thermite in Space
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 5.11
5.8  Energy Choices
Anchor 85
6 Quantum Chemistry—The Strange World of Atoms
6.1  Introduction
6.1.1  What is Electromagnetic Radiation?
6.1.2  Is There a Relationship Between Wavelength and Frequency
Example 6.1—Conversions Between Frequency and Wavelength
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.1
6.1.3  Applications of Electromagnetic Radiation
6.1.4  The Relationship Between Frequency and Energy
Example 6.2—The Energy of Electromagnetic Radiation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.2
6.2  Atomic Emission, Absorption Spectroscopy and the Quantum Number
6.2.1  Obtaining the Hydrogen Spectrum
6.2.2  Exploring the Hydrogen Emission Spectrum
Example 6.3—Using the Balmer Equation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.3
6.2.3  Application of Emission Spectra
6.3  The Bohr Model of Atomic Structure
6.3.1  Bohr’s Model
6.3.2  A Specific Energy is Associated with Each Orbit…
6.3.3  Energy Changes as Electrons Move
Example 6.4—Energy-to-Frequency Conversion in the Hydrogen Atom
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.4
6.3.4  Some Applications of Excited Atoms
6.4  Wave-Particle Duality
6.4.1  Wave-Particle Duality
6.4.2  Can a Particle Act as a Wave?
Example 6.5—Working with the de Broglie Equation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.5
6.5  The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
6.5.1  The Limitations of Applying Quantum-Level Calculations
Example 6.6—Photons and Momentum
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.6
6.6  The Mathematical Language of Quantum Chemistry
6.6.1  The Application of Schrödinger’s Equation
6.6.2  Orbitals
6.7  Atomic Orbitals
6.7.1  Relating Quantum Numbers to Orbitals
6.7.2  s Orbitals
6.7.3  p Orbitals
6.7.4  d Orbitals
6.7.5  f Orbitals
Example 6.7—Quantum Numbers
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.7
6.8  Only Two Electrons per Orbital: Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
6.8.1  Revisiting the Significance of Quantum Numbers
6.9  Orbitals and Energy Levels in Multielectron Atoms
6.9.1  The Impact of Electron Shielding in a Multielectron Atom
6.10  Electron Configurations and the Aufbau Principle
Example 6.8—Practice with Electron Configurations
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 6.8
6.10.1  Putting Quantum Chemistry into Action: The Blocks of the Periodic Table
Anchor 84
7 Periodic Properties of the Elements
7.1  Introduction
7.2  The Big Picture—Building the Periodic Table
Example 7.1—Identifying Elements
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Solution
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Practice 7.1
7.2.1  The Historical Development of the Periodic Table
7.3  The First Level of Structure—Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
Example 7.2—Heavy Metals, Both Necessary and Toxic
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Solution
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Practice 7.2
z NanoWorld/MacroWorld—Big Effects of the Very Small: The Diversity of Steels
7.4  The Next Level of Structure—Groups in the Periodic Table
7.4.1  Group 1 (IA): Hydrogen and the Alkali Metals
7.4.2  Group 2(IIA): The Alkaline Earth Metals
7.4.3  Group 13 (IIIA)
7.4.4  Group 14 (IVA)
7.4.5  Group 15 (VA)
7.4.6  Group 16 (VIA): The Chalcogens
7.4.7  Group 17 (VIIA): The Halogens
7.4.8  Group 18 (VIIIA): The Noble Gases
NanoWorld/MacroWorld—The Big Effects of the Very Small—Everblasting Gobstoppers at the Edge of Absolute Zero
Example 7.3—A Group Activity
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Solution
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Practice 7.3
7.4.9  Groups 3–12 (IB–VIIIB): The Transition Elements
7.4.10  The Elements of Life
7.5  The Concept of Periodicity
Example 7.4—Explaining the Periods Between Periodicities
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Solution
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Practice 7.4
7.6  Atomic Size
7.7  Ionization Energies
Example 7.5—Implications of Ionization Energy Trends
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 7.5
Example 7.6—Differences in Ionization Energies
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 7.6
7.8  Electron Affinity
Example 7.7—Trends
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Solution
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Practice 7.7
7.9  Electronegativity
Example 7.8—Trends in Electronegativity
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Solution
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Practice 7.8
7.10  Reactivity
7.10.1  The Reactivity Series of Metals
7.11  The Elements and the Environment
Anchor 75
8 Bonding Basics
8.1  Introduction
8.2  Modeling Bonds
8.2.1  Three Kinds of Bonds
8.2.2  Lewis Dot Symbols
8.2.3  Electron Configuration of Ions
8.2.4  Octet Rule
Example 8.1—Writing Lewis Dot Symbols
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 8.1
8.3  Ionic Bonding
8.3.1  Description of Ionic Bonding
8.3.2  Examples of Ionic Bonding
8.3.3  Ions: Does Size Matter?
8.3.4  Energy of the Ionic Bond
Example 8.3 Predicting Lattice Enthalpies
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 8.3
8.4  Covalent Bonding
8.4.1  Description of Covalent Bonding
8.4.2  Electronegativity and the Covalent Bond
8.4.3  Types of Covalent Bonding
8.4.4  Modeling a Covalent Bond—Lewis Structures
8.4.6  Resonance Structures
8.4.5  Formal Charges
Example 8.2—Ionic Compound Formation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 8.2
Nanoworld-Macroworld: The Big Effects of the Very Small.—Chlorophyll, Tie-Dying and Visible Light
8.4.7  Exceptions to the Octet Rule
8.4.8  Energy of the Covalent Bond
Example 8.4 What Type of Bond Is It?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 8.4
Example 8.5 Return to Basics
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Solution
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Practice 8.5
Example 8.6 Chemical Warfare and Bonding
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Solution
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Practice 8.6
Example 8.7 Calculating the Enthalpy of Combustion
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Solution
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Practice 8.7
8.5  VSEPR—A Better Model
Issues and Controversies—Flat molecules and ethics in science
8.5.1  The VSEPR Model
8.5.2  Examples of Three-Dimensional Structures Using the VSEPR Model
8.5.3  Advanced Thoughts on the VSEPR Model
Example 8.8 Ozone and VSEPR
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Solution
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Practice 8.8
Example 8.9 A Closer Look at Ozone
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Solution
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Practice 8.9
8.6  Properties of Ionic and Molecular Compounds
8.6.1  Bond Dipoles
8.6.2  Dipole Moment
8.6.3  Polar Versus Nonpolar
Example 8.10 Does CHCl3 Have a Dipole Moment?
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Solution
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Practice 8.10
Anchor 92
9 Advanced Models of Bonding
9.1  Introduction
9.2  Valence Bond Theory
9.2.1  What is a Valence Bond?
Example 9.1—Modifications to the Structure of HF
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Solution
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Practice 9.1
9.2.2 Application of Valence Bond Theory
Example 9.2—Using Valence Bond Theory: Warp Drive?
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Solution
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Practice 9.2
9.2.3 What’s Wrong with This Model?
9.3  Hybridization
9.3.1  Hybridization Defined
9.3.2  sp, sp2, and sp3 Orbitals
Example 9.3—Hybridization in Common Molecules
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Solution
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Practice 9.3
9.3.3 Shapes of the Hybrids
Example 9.4—Shapes of the Molecules
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Practice 9.4
9.3.4 sp3d and sp3d2 Orbitals
9.3.5 Multiple Bonds: Sigma and Pi Bonds
Example 9.5—The Bonds of Acetylene
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Solution
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Practice 9.5
9.3.6 Application of Hybridization Theory: Bond Lengths
Example 9.6—Bond lengths of C—C Single Bonds
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Practice 9.6
9.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hybridization
Example 9.7—Using Hybridization: Will the Molecule Be Solid or Liquid?
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Solution
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Practice 9.7
9.4  Molecular Orbital Theory
9.4.1  Molecular Orbital Theory Defined
9.4.2  Shapes of Orbitals and the Strengths of Bonds
9.4.3  MO Diagrams
Example 9.8—MO Power
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Solution
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Practice 9.8
9.4.4 More About MO Diagrams
Example 9.9—MO Theory: The Power of a Photon
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Solution
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Practice 9.9
9.5  Putting It All Together
Anchor 75
10 The Behavior and Applications of Gases
10.1  The Nature of Gases
10.2  Production of Hydrogen and the Meaning of Pressure
Example 10.1—Calculating Force
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 10.1
Example 10.2—Conversion Among Measures of Pressure
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Solution
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Practice 10.2
10.3  Mixtures of Gases—Dalton’s Law and Food Packaging
Example 10.3—Partial Pressure of Gases in the Atmosphere
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Solution
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Practice 10.3
10.4  The Gas Laws—Relating the Behavior of Gases to Key Properties
10.4.1  Avogadro’s Law
Example 10.4—Avogadro’s Law
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Solution
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Practice 10.4
10.4.2 Boyle’s Law
Example 10.5—Boyle’s Law
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Solution
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Practice 10.5
10.4.3 Charles’s Law
Example 10.6—Charles’ Law
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Solution
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Practice 10.6
Example 10.7—Mendeleev’s Demonstration of Nonideal Behavior
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Solution
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Practice 10.7
10.4.4 Combined Gas Equation
Example 10.8—Combined Gas Equation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 10.8
10.5  The Ideal Gas Equation
Example 10.9—Using the Ideal Gas Equation
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Solution
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Practice 10.9
Example 10.10—The Ideal Gas Equation and Compressed Gas
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Solution
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Practice 10.10
10.5.1 Volume Corrections for Real Gases
10.5.2 Pressure Corrections for Real Gases
Example 10.11—The van der Waals Equation
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Solution
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Practice 10.11
10.6  Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation
10.6.1  Physical Change Applications
Example 10.12—An Application of Gas Density
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Solution
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Practice 10.12
10.6.2 Chemical Reactions—Automobile Air Bags
Example 10.13—Filling the Airbag
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Solution
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Practice 10.13
10.6.3 Chemical Reactions—Acetylene
Example 10.14—Production of Acetylene
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Solution
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Practice 10.14
10.7  Kinetic-Molecular Theory
10.7.1  Using the Assumptions About Gas Behavior to Rationalize the Gas Laws
Example 10.15—The Importance of Assumptions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 10.15
10.8  Effusion and Diffusion
10.8.1  A Closer Look at Molecular Speeds
Example 10.16—The RMS Speed of Gases
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Are Our Answers Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 10.16
10.8.2 Diffusion
Example 10.17—Effusion
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Are Our Answers Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 10.17
10.9  Industrialization: A Wonderful, yet Cautionary, Tale
10.9.1  Ozone
NanoWorld/MacroWorld The Big Effects of the Very Small: Accumulation of Ozone at the Earth’s Surface
10.9.2  The Greenhouse Effect and Global Climate Change
Anchor 128
11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
11.1  An Introduction to Water
11.2  The Structure of Liquids
11.3  A Closer Look at Intermolecular Forces
11.3.1  London Dispersion Forces—Induced Dipoles
11.3.2  Permanent Dipole–Dipole Forces
11.3.3  Hydrogen Bonds
Example 11.1—Molar Mass, Structure, London Forces, and Boiling Point
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Are Our Answers Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 11.1
Example 11.2—Comparing the Boiling Points
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Are Our Answers Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 11.2
11.4  Impact of Intermolecular Forces on the Physical Properties of Liquids: Phase Changes
Issues and Controversies—Using Phase Changes to Clean Water
11.4.1 Vapor Pressure
11.4.2 Boiling Point
11.4.3 Heating Curves
Example 11.3—Comparing Vapor Pressures
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 11.3
Example 11.4—An Implication of Vapor Pressure
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 11.4
Example 11.5—Using the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 11.5
Example 11.6—Calculating Vapor Pressure Via the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 11.6
Example 11.7—Energy Changes Upon Heating the Water
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Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 11.7
11.5  Phase Diagrams
Example 11.8—Reading Phase Diagrams
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 11.8
How Do We Know—The Moons of Jupiter
11.6  Impact of Intermolecular Forces on the Physical Properties of Liquids: Other Properties
11.6.1  Viscosity
11.6.2  Surface Tension
11.6.3  Capillary Action
11.7  The Structure of Crystals
11.7.1  Types of Solids
11.7.2  Crystal Lattices
11.7.3  Metallic Crystals
Example 11.9—Matching
Asking the Right Questions
What Do I Need to Know?
Solution
Are Our Answers Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 11.9
11.8  Crystallography and the Unit Cell
11.8.1  Liquid Crystals
Example 11.10—There’s a Lot of Room in Here
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 11.10
Example 11.11—He Isn’t Heavy, He’s Dense
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 11.11
11.9  Metals
11.9.1  Alloys
11.9.2  Amalgams
Example 11.12—The Color of Paint
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 11.12
Anchor 101
12 The Chemistry of Water: Aqueous Solutions and Their Properties
12.1  Introduction
12.2  Water: The Universal Solvent
12.2.1  Why Do so Many Substances Dissolve in Water?
NanoWorld/MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small—Removing Non-polar Substances from Water
Example 12.1—Predicting Solubility
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 12.1
12.2.2  Colloids
12.3  Measures of Solution Concentration
12.3.1  Measures Based on Moles
Example 12.2—Practice with Mole-Based Units of Concentration
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 12.2
12.3.2  Measures Based on Mass
Example 12.3—Conversion Between Mole and Mass Concentration Units
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 12.3
12.4  The Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility
12.4.1  Temperature Effects
12.4.2  Pressure Effects
Example 12.4—Henry’s Law and CO2 in Soda
Asking the Right Questions
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 12.4
12.5  Colligative Properties
12.5.1  Vapor Pressure Lowering
Example 12.5—Vapor Pressure Lowering
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Solution
Is the Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 12.5
12.5.2  Boiling-Point Elevation
Example 12.6—Boiling Point Elevation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 12.6
12.5.3  Freezing-Point Depression
12.5.4  Osmosis
Example 12.7—Osmosis and You
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Solution
Is the Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 12.7
12.5.5  Reverse Osmosis
12.5.6  Back to the Future
Anchor 62
13 Chemical Kinetics
13.1  Introduction
13.2  Reaction Rates
13.2.1  Instantaneous Rate, Initial Rate, and Average Rate
Example 13.1—Rate of the Haber Process
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.1
Example 13.2—The Rate of a Reaction
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.2
13.3  An Introduction to Rate Laws
Example 13.3—The Rate Law
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.3
13.3.1 Collision Theory
13.4  Changes in Time—The Integrated Rate Law
13.4.1  Integrated First-Order Rate Law
Example 13.4—The Rate Law
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.4
13.4.2  Half-Life
Example 13.5—How Long Will It Take?
Asking the Right Questions
What Do I Need to Know?
Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.5
13.4.3 Other Rate Laws
13.5  Methods of Determining Rate Laws
Example 13.6—Initial Rates
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.6
Example 13.7—Determining the Reaction Order
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.7
13.6  Looking Back at Rate Laws
13.7  Reaction Mechanisms
Example 13.8—Rate Laws
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.8
13.7.1  Transition State Theory
Example 13.9—Energy Barrier
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 13.9
13.8  Applications of Catalysts
NanoWorld/MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small: Enzymes—Nature’s Catalysts
Anchor 72
14 Chemical Equilibrium
14.1  Introduction
14.2  The Concept of Chemical Equilibrium
14.2.1  Definitions of Equilibrium
Example 14.1—Equilibrium Concentrations
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.1
Example 14.2—The Mass-Action Expression
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.2
Example 14.3—Practice with Mass-Action Expressions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.3
14.3  Why Is Chemical Equilibrium a Useful Concept?
14.4  The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant
How Do We Know?—Equilibrium and Chromatographic Analysis
Example 14.4—Interpreting K
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.4
14.4.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria
14.5  Working with Equilibrium Constants
Example 14.5—Reversing the Reaction
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Solution
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What if…?
Practice 14.5
14.5.1 Combining Reactions to Describe a Process
14.5.2 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations from K and Other Concentrations
14.5.3 Using Partial Pressures
Example 14.6—Converting K to Kp
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.6
14.6  Solving Equilibrium Problems—A Different Way of Thinking
14.6.1  A Case Study
Example 14.7—Predicting the Direction of Equilibrium
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.7
14.6.2 Small Value of K
Example 14.8—Concentration of Lead Ion in Saturated Lead Bromide
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.8
14.6.3 Large Value of K
Example 14.9—The Myoglobin–Oxygen System
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.9
14.6.4 Intermediate Value of K
14.6.5 In Summary
14.7  Le Châtelier’s Principle
14.7.1  Changes in Concentration
14.7.2  Changes in Pressure
14.7.3  Changes in Temperature
Example 14.10—Le Châtelier’s Principle
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 14.10
14.7.4 The Importance of Catalysts
Anchor 84
15 Acids and Bases
15.1  Introduction
15.2  What Are Acids and Bases?
Example 15.1—Acids, Bases, and Their Conjugates
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.1
Example 15.2—Ammonia as a Base
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.2
15.3  Acid Strength
15.3.1  Strong and Weak Acids
Example 15.3—Relative Acid Strength
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.3
Example 15.4—Strength of the Conjugates
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.4
15.3.2 The Different Strengths of Acids
Example 15.5—Which Acid is Stronger?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.5
NanoWorld-MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small—Superacids and Superbases
Example 15.6—Concentrated Versus Dilute Strong Acids
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.6
15.4  The pH Scale
Example 15.7
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.7
Example 15.8—[H+] and pH: One Implication
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.8
15.4.1 Water and the pH Scale
Example 15.9—Water in a Pristine Lake
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.9
15.5  Determining the pH of Acidic Solutions
15.5.1  PH of Strong Acid Solutions
Example 15.10—Calculating the pH of a Strong Acid Solution
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.10
15.5.2 Le Châtelier’s Principle and the Supply of Hydroxide Ion in Acidic Solutions
15.5.3   pH of Weak Acid Solutions
Example 15.11—pH of a Weak Acid
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.11
15.5.4 pH of a Mixture of Monoprotic Acids
15.6  Determining the pH of Basic Solutions
Example 15.12—pH of a Strong Base
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Solution
Is Our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 15.12
Example 15.13—pH of a Weak Base
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Solution
Is our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 15.13
15.7  Issues and Controversies—Nicotine and pH Control in Cigarettes
15.7  Polyprotic Acids
15.7.1  The pH of Polyprotic Acids
Example 15.14—Concentration of Species in a Polyprotic Acid Solution
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.14
15.8  Assessing the Acid–Base Behavior of Salts in Aqueous Solution
15.8.1  The Relationship of Ka to Kb
Example 15.15—pH of a Salt containing a Cation with No Acidic Properties
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.15
Example 15.16—pH of Zwitterions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 15.16
15.9  Anhydrides in Aqueous Solution
Anchor 118
16 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria
16.1  Introduction
16.2  Buffers and the Common-Ion Effect
16.2.1  The Impact of Le Châtelier’s Principle on the Equilibria in the Buffer
16.2.2  Buffer Preparation
16.2.3  The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation: We Proceed, but with Caution
16.2.4  Buffer Capacity
16.2.4.1  Change 1: Addition of a Strong Acid
16.2.4.2  Change 2: Addition of a Strong Base
16.2.4.3  Change 3: Exceeding the Buffer Capacity
16.2.5  Food for Thought: Are Strong Acids and Bases Buffers?
Example 16.1—Alternative Route to the pH of the Buffer
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.1
Example 16.2—Practice Calculating the Initial pH of a Buffer
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.2
Example 16.3—Practice with Buffer Preparation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.3
Example 16.4—More Practice with Buffer Preparation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.4
Example 16.5—The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.5
Example 16.6—Buffer Capacity
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.6
Example 16.7—Keeping the pH Within Specified Limits
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.7
NanoWorld/MacroWorld—Big Effects of the Very Small: Buffers in Biochemical Studies and Medicine
16.3  Acid–Base Titrations
16.3.1  Strong-Acid–Strong-Base Titrations
16.3.1.1  Part 1: Initial pH
16.3.1.2  Part 2: Addition of 5.00 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.1.3  Part 3: Addition of a Total of 12.50 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.1.4  Part 4: Addition of a Total of 24.00 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.1.5  Part 5: Addition of a Total of 25.00 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.1.6  Part 6: Addition of a Total of 40.00 mL of NaOH Solution
Example 16.8—Titrating Sodium Hydroxide with Hydrochloric Acid
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Solution
Are our Answers Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 16.8
16.3.2 Acid–Base Titrations in Which One Component is Weak and One is Strong
16.3.2.1 Part 1: Initial pH
16.3.2.2 Part 2: Addition of 5.00 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.2.3 Part 3: Addition of 12.50 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.2.4 Part 4: Addition of a Total of 24.00 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.2.5 Part 5: Addition of a Total of 25.00 mL of NaOH Solution
Part 6: Addition of a Total of 40.00 mL of NaOH Solution
16.3.3 Summarizing the Key Ideas of the Weak-Acid–Strong-Base Titration Discussion
Example 16.9—Titrating a Weak Base with a Strong Acid
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.9
16.3.4 Indicators
Example 16.10—Picking an Indicator
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.10
16.4  Solubility Equilibria
16.4.1  Side Reactions that Affect Our Reaction of Interest
Issues and Controversies—Side Reactions and Activities
16.4.2 Calculating Molar Solubility
Example 16.11—How Much Dissolves?
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Solution
Is our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 16.11
Example 16.12—Calculating Ksp
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Solution
Is our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 16.12
16.4.3 Solubility, Precipitation, and Gravimetric Analysis
16.4.4 To Precipitate or Not to Precipitate
Example 16.13—Will It Make a Solid?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.13
16.4.5 Acids, Bases, and Solubility
16.5  Complex-Ion Equilibria
16.5.1  Introducing the Formation Constant
16.5.2  Extending the Discussion to EDTA
16.5.3  The Importance of the Conditional Formation Constant
Example 16.14—Conditional Formation Constant
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Solution
Is our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 16.14
Example 16.15—Data for a Calcium–EDTA Analysis
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 16.15
Anchor 131
17 Thermodynamics: A Look at Why Reactions Happen
17.1  Introduction
17.2  Probability as a Predictor of Chemical Behavior
Example 17.1—Probability
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.1
17.3  Why Do Chemical Reactions Happen? Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Example 17.2—Spontaneity in Common Processes
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.2
17.3.1  Entropy
17.3.2 The Second Law
Example 17.3—Reaction Spontaneity
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.3
17.4  Temperature and Spontaneous Processes
NanoWorld/MacroWorld: The Big Effects of the Very Small—Industrial uses for the Extremophiles
Example 17.4—Entropy Change at a Phase Change
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.4
17.5  Calculating Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Example 17.5—Predict the Sign
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.5
Example 17.6—Calculating ΔS°
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.6
17.6  Free Energy
Example 17.7—Spontaneity and Biochemical Reactions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.7
17.6.1  A Second Way to Calculate ∆G
17.6.2  Free Energy of Formation
Example 17.8—I’m Hungry. What’s for Dinner? Free Energy and Spontaneity
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.8
17.7  When ΔG = 0; Link to Equilibrium
Example 17.9—Temperature Dependence of ΔG
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.9
17.7.1  Changes in Pressure Affect Spontaneity
17.7.2  Changes in Concentrations Affect Spontaneity
17.7.3  Coupled Reactions
Issues and Controversies—ATP—It’s part of a bigger system
17.8  Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
Example 17.10—Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 17.10
Anchor 79
18 Electrochemistry
18.1  Introduction
How Do We Know? DNA Profiling
18.2  What is Electrochemistry?
18.3  Oxidation States—Electronic Bookkeeping
Example 18.1—Oxidation States
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.1
Issues and Controversies—Destruction of the RMS Titanic
Example 18.2—The Electrochemistry of Smog
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.2
18.4  Redox Equations
18.4.1  Half-Reactions
18.4.2  Balancing Redox Reactions
18.4.3  Manipulating Half-Cell Reactions
Example 18.3—Spontaneity and Potential
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.3
Example 18.4—Balancing Redox Equations in Acidic Solutions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.4
Example 18.5—Balancing Redox Equations in Basic Solutions
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.5
Example 18.6—Dissolving Gold
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.6
18.5  Electrochemical Cells
18.5.1  Electrochemical Cells in the Laboratory
18.5.2  Cell Notation
18.5.3  Batteries
18.5.4  The Chemistry of Some Common Batteries
Example 18.7—Alkaline Batteries
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.7
Example 18.8—Shorthand Notation
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.8
18.6  Chemical Reactivity Series
Example 18.9—Which Is More Reactive?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.9
18.7  Not-So-Standard Conditions: The Nernst Equation
18.7.1  The Nernst Equation and the Equilibrium Constant
Example 18.10—Heart Cell Potential
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Solution
Is our Answer Reasonable?
What If…?
Practice 18.10
Example 18.11—Equilibrium Constants and Cell Potential
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Solution
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What if…?
Practice 18.11
18.8  Electrolytic Reactions
18.8.1  The Applications of Electrolysis
18.8.2  Calculations Involving Electrolysis
Example 18.12—Golden Forks
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 18.12
Anchor 94
19 Coordination Complexes
19.1  Introduction
19.2  Bonding in Coordination Complexes
19.3  Ligands
Example 19.1—Identifying Possible Ligands
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 19.1
19.4  Coordination Number
How Do We Know?—What is the Nature of the Structure, Bonding, and Reactivity in Cisplatin?
19.5  Structure
Example 19.2—Coordination Number and Geometry
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 19.2
19.6  Isomers
19.7  Formulas and Names
19.7.1  Formulas
19.7.2  Nomenclature
Example 19.3—Naming Compounds
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Solution
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Practice 19.3
19.8  Color and Coordination Compounds
19.8.1  Transition Metals and Color
19.8.2  Crystal Field Theory
19.8.3  Octahedral Crystal Field Splitting
19.8.4  Tetrahedral Crystal Field Splitting
19.8.5  Square Planar Crystal Field Splitting
19.8.6  Orbital Occupancy
19.8.7  Octahedral Complexes
19.8.8  Tetrahedral Complexes
19.8.9  Square Planar Complexes
Example 19.4—Drawing Crystal Field Diagrams
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 19.4
19.8.10  The Result of d Orbital Splitting
19.8.11  Magnetism
19.9  Chemical Reactions
19.9.1  Ligand Exchange Reactions
19.9.2  Electron Transfer Reactions
Anchor 51
20 Nuclear Chemistry
20.1  Introduction
20.2  Isotopes and More Isotopes
Example 20.1—Decoding Isotopes
Anchor 5
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 20.1
20.3  Types of Radioactive Decay
20.3.1  Beta-Particle Emission
20.3.2  Alpha-Particle Emission
20.3.3  Gamma-Ray Emission
20.3.4  Other Types of Radioactive Decay
20.3.5  Decay Series
Example 20.2—Beta Emissions In and Around Us
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What If…?
Practice 20.2
Example 20.3—Alpha Emissions In and Around Us
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 20.3
20.4  Interaction of Radiation with Matter
20.5  The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
Example 20.4—Half-life Calculations: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow?
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 20.4
20.6  Mass and Binding Energy
Example 20.5—The Energy Advantage of Nuclear Reactions
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Solution
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What if…?
Practice 20.5
Example 20.6—Working With Binding Energy
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 20.6
20.7  Nuclear Stability and Human-Made Radioactive Nuclides
Example 20.7—Ten Tin Isotopes
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Solution
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What If…?
Practice 20.7
20.8  Splitting the Atom: Nuclear Fission
Issues and Controversies—The Manhattan Project
20.8.1  Nuclear Reactors as a Vital Source of Electricity
Example 20.8—Fission: A Chain Reaction
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Solution
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Practice 20.8
20.9  Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
20.9.1  Tracer Isotopes for Diagnosis
Example 20.9—123I and 131I: Cousins But Not Twins
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Solution
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Practice 20.9
How Do We Know?—Imaging with Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Anchor 74
21 Carbon
21.1  Introduction
21.2  Elemental Carbon
21.2.1  Diamond
21.2.2  Graphite
21.2.3  Fullerenes
21.3  Crude Oil—The Basic Resource
21.4  Hydrocarbons
21.4.1  Alkanes
21.4.2  Branched-Chain Alkanes: Isomers of the Normal Alkanes
21.4.3  Naming the Alkanes
21.4.4  Cyclic Alkanes
21.4.5  Alkenes
21.4.6  Alkynes
21.4.7  Geometric Isomers
21.4.8  Aromatic Hydrocarbons
21.4.9  Alkyl Groups
Example 21.1—Finding the Isomers
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Solution
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Practice 21.1
Example 21.2—Care with General Formulas
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Solution
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Practice 21.2
Example 21.3—Cis and Trans
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Practice 21.3
Example 21.4—Naming with Alkyl Groups
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Practice 21.4
21.5  Separating the Hydrocarbons by Fractional Distillation
How Do We Know?—Which Hydrocarbons Are in Crude Oil?
21.6  Processing Hydrocarbons
21.6.1  Cracking
21.6.2  Reforming
21.6.3  Gasoline
21.7  Typical Reactions of the Alkanes
21.8  The Functional Group Concept
Example 21.5—Functional Groups and You!
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Solution
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Practice 21.5
21.9  Ethene, the C=C Bond, and Polymers
21.10  Alcohols
21.11  From Alcohols to Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
21.12  From Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids to Esters
Example 21.6—Nomenclature of Esters
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Practice 21.6
21.13  Condensation Polymers
21.14  Polyethers
21.15  Handedness in Molecules
Example 21.7—Chiral Drugs
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21.16  Organic Chemistry and Modern Drug Discovery
21.16.1  Taxol
Example 21.8—Taxol as a Drug
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Practice 21.8
Example 21.9—Nomenclature of Esters
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Practice 21.9
Anchor 88
22 The Chemistry of Life
22.1  Introduction
22.2  DNA—The Basic Structure
22.2.1  DNA Replication—The Secret of Reproduction
Example 22.1—What Exactly is DNA?
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Solution
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Practice 22.1
Example 22.2—Using the Template
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Practice 22.2
22.3  Proteins
22.4  How Genes Code for Proteins
22.4.1  Transcription—Making the Message
22.4.2  Translation—Making Proteins
22.4.3  Protein Folding
Example 22.3—Examining the Genetic Code
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Practice 22.3
22.5  Enzymes
22.5.1  Cofactors, Coenzymes, and Protein Modifications
22.5.2  The General Classes of Enzymatic Reactions
Example 22.4—What is It Doing?
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Practice 22.4
NanoWorld/MacroWorld—The Big Effects of the Very Small: Vitamins and Disease
Vitamin D
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Vitamin C
Vitamin B1
22.6  The Diversity of Protein Functions
22.6.1  Proteins as Enzymes
22.6.2  Proteins as Transporters
22.6.3  Proteins as “Movers and Shakers”
22.6.4  Proteins as Scaffolding and Structure
22.6.5  Proteins as Messengers
22.6.6  Proteins as Receptors
22.6.7  Proteins as Gates and Pumps
22.6.8  Proteins as Controllers
22.6.9  Proteins as Defenders
22.6.10  Glorious Complexity
22.7  Carbohydrates
22.8  Lipids
22.9  The Maelstrom of Metabolism
22.9.1  Breaking Things Down and Building Them up Again
22.10  Biochemistry and Chirality
22.11  A Look to the Future
22.11.1  Antibiotics
22.11.2  Anticancer Agents
22.11.3  Hormones and Their Mimics
22.11.4  Neurotransmitters
22.11.5  Genetic Disease
Anchor 65