Agriculture, Natural Resources and Food Security: Lessons from Nepal

Foreword by John Dixon
Foreword by Bimala Rai Paudyal
Preface
Reviewers
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1 Introduction and Overview
Abstract
1.1 Background and Rationale
1.2 Book Structure and Chapter Overview
1.2.1 Theme 1: Agriculture, Horticulture, and Post-harvest Management
1.2.2 Theme 2: Livestock and Fisheries
1.2.3 Theme 3: Forest Ecosystems, Community Forestry, and Agroforestry
1.2.4 Theme 4: Cross-Cutting Topics
1.2.5 Implications for Sustainable Development Goals
1.2.6 Conclusions, Research Gaps, and Research and Policy Recommendations
1.2.6.1 Theme 1: Agriculture, Horticulture, and Post-Harvest Management
1.2.6.2 Theme 2: Livestock and Fisheries
1.2.6.3 Theme 3: Forest Ecosystems, Community Forestry, and Agroforestry
1.2.6.4 Theme 4: Cross-Cutting Topics
References
Agriculture, Horticulture, and Post-harvest Management
2 Cereal Demand and Production Projections for 2050: Opportunities for Achieving Food Self-Sufficiency in Nepal
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data Sources and Methods
2.3 Results and Discussion
2.3.1 Area, Production, and Productivity of Cereals
2.3.2 Growth Rates of Area, Production, and Productivity
2.3.3 Production Variability and Instability
2.3.4 Import and Export Trends
2.3.5 Projections of Production and Demand of Cereals
2.3.6 Projections of Cereal Self-Sufficiency
2.3.7 Estimated Cereal Productivity Needed for Achieving Food Self-Sufficiency
2.4 Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
References
3 Fruits and Vegetables for Food and Nutrition Security and Income Generation in Nepal
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives and Scope
3.3 Methodology
3.4 Results and Discussion
3.4.1 History of Research and Extension Organizations for Fruits and Vegetables
3.4.2 History of Fruit Varieties Released and Registered
3.4.3 History of Vegetables Varieties Developed, Released, and Registered
3.4.4 Fruit Saplings and Vegetable Seeds Production and Supply Situation
3.4.4.1 Fruit Sapling Production and Supply Situation
3.4.4.2 Vegetable Seed Production Trend and Estimated Demand and Supply Situation
3.4.5 Trends of Commercial Production of Fruits
3.4.6 Trends of Commercial Production of Vegetables
3.4.7 Trends of Import and Export of Fruits
3.4.8 Trends of Import and Export of Vegetables
3.4.9 Assessment of Availability of Fruits and Vegetables
3.5 Challenges, Gaps, and Issues
3.5.1 Limited Information and Database in Fruits and Vegetables
3.5.2 Institutional Gaps
3.5.3 Policy and Program Gaps
3.5.4 Investment in Research and Development Gaps
3.5.5 Human Resource Gaps
3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations
3.6.1 Priority Fruits for Commercial Production and Marketing
3.6.2 Priority for Commercial Vegetable Production and Marketing
3.6.3 Promotion of Nutrition Gardens for Household Food and Nutrition Security
3.6.4 Policy and Institutional Reforms and Increased Investment in Horticulture Sector
References
4 Potential for Citrus Export from Nepal to Tibet
Abstract
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Livelihood Improvement and Sustainable Development Goals
4.3 Prospects of Nepal to China Citrus Trade
4.4 Nepal–China Phytosanitary Agreement on Citrus
4.5 The Phytosanitary Rationale for Chinese Requirements
4.6 Treatments for Fruit Fly Control
4.7 Potential Market
4.8 Treatment Options
4.9 Transport Options
4.10 Nepalese Phytosanitary Arrangements
4.10.1 Preparatory Documentation
4.10.2 Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)
4.10.3 Responsibility Allocation
4.10.3.1 Growers
4.10.3.2 Packhouses/Cooperatives
4.10.3.3 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development Plant Quarantine and Pesticide Management Center/, Department of Agriculture
4.11 Cost–benefit Analysis
4.12 Conclusions and Policy Recommendations
Acknowledgements
References
5 Postharvest and Quality Management of Fruits and Vegetables in Nepal
Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fundamentals of Safety and Quality of Fresh Produce
5.3 Postharvest Research and Management in Nepal
5.4 Major Drivers for Improved Postharvest Management
5.4.1 Production Scale and Technology
5.4.2 Supply Chain Stakeholders and Consumers
5.4.3 Proactive Government Actions
5.5 Recommendation for Improved Postharvest Management
5.5.1 Infrastructures and Facilities
5.6 Regulations and Actions
5.7 Improved Postharvest Management in Nepal
5.8 Fresh Produce Safety Guidelines and Quality Standards for Nepal
5.9 Postharvest Management and Quality Imperatives for Nepal
5.9.1 Safety and Quality Regulations
5.9.2 Recommendations for Local Government
5.10 Conclusions
References
6 Srengthening National Seed System for Food and Nutrition Security in Nepal
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Background and Objectives
6.3 Seed Systems in Nepal
6.4 Formal Seed System
6.5 Informal Seed System
6.6 Advances in Plant Breeding and Applied Biotechnology
6.7 Mechanization in Seed Production and Processing
6.8 Need for Application of Digital Technology in Seed Systems
6.9 Variety Development and Release or Registration in Nepal
6.10 Breeding for Biofortified Crops
6.11 Seed Without Borders Initiative
6.12 Seed Storage and Buffer Stock
6.13 Seed Demand and Supply
6.14 Seed Policies and Regulations
6.15 National Seed Policy 2000
6.16 National Seed Vision 2013–2025
6.17 Agricultural Development Strategy
6.18 Evolutions of National Seed Laws
6.19 Challenges and Opportunities of Seed Industry in Nepal
6.20 Contribution of Seed Sector to Sustainable Development Goals
6.21 Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
References
7 Agrobiodiversity, and Neglected and Underutilized Species for Food, Nutrition, Livelihood, and Environmental Security in Nepal
Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Need of Conservation and Sustainable Use of Agrobiodiversity
7.3 Agrobiodiversity in Achieving National and UN Sustainable Development Goals
7.4 Components and Sub-Components of Agrobiodiversity
7.5 Agrobiodiversity for Sustainable Farming System
7.6 Neglected and Underutilized Agrobiodiversity
7.7 Reasons and Factors Making Agrobiodiversity Neglected and Underutilized
7.8 Agrobiodiversity Conservation Strategies
7.9 Constraints and Issues in Conserving and Mainstreaming NUA
7.10 Mainstreaming and Strengthening NUA
7.11 Globally Significant Nepalese Agricultural Genetic Resources
7.12 Conclusions
7.13 Policy Implications
References
8 Improving Soil Health and Soil Security for Food and Nutrition Security in Nepal
Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Soil Security and Its Relationship with Food and Nutrition Security
8.3 Soil Fertility Status in Nepal
8.4 Factors Affecting Soil Fertility Decline in Nepal
8.4.1 Soil Nutrient Mining
8.4.2 Depletion of Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
8.4.3 Imbalanced Application of Fertilizers
8.4.4 Environmental Factors
8.5 Soil and Nutrient Management Practices
8.5.1 Nutrient Management Practices
8.5.1.1 Application of Organic Inputs and Incorporation of Rice and Wheat Straw
8.5.1.2 Increased and Balanced Application of Inorganic Fertilizers
8.5.1.3 In-Situ Manuring
8.5.1.4 Management of Acid Soils
8.5.2 Soil Management Practices
8.5.2.1 Legumes in Crop Rotation
8.5.2.2 Bio-Fertilizer Use
8.5.2.3 Green Manuring
8.5.2.4 Cover Crops and Mulching
8.5.2.5 Strip Cropping
8.5.2.6 Agroforestry Systems
8.5.2.7 Reduced Tillage
8.5.3 Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM) Practices
8.6 Improving Soil Information System and Updating Fertilizer Recommendations
8.7 Conclusions, Policy Implications, and Recommendations
References
9 Plant Clinics for Crop Health and Food Security: Experiences from Nepal
Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Agriculture Extension Service System in Nepal
9.3 Plant Health Service System in Nepal
9.4 Plant Clinics
9.5 Plant Clinics in Nepal
9.6 Plant Clinics at Operation Level
9.7 Economics of Plant Clinics
9.8 Impact of Plant Clinics
9.9 Pest Monitoring and Surveillance
9.10 Integration of Plant Clinic in Agriculture Extension at the Local Government Level
9.11 Opportunities and Challenges of Plant Clinics Operation in Nepal
9.12 Way Forward
9.13 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
10 Toxins, Contaminants, and Adulteration in Food: Current Policies and Practices, and Future Strategies for Nepal
Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Food Toxins and Contaminants: Global Overview
10.3 Food Laws and Regulations: Global Overview
10.4 Food Safety Laws, Standards, and Regulations in Nepal: A Critical Review
10.5 Cases of Food Toxins and Contaminants in Nepal
10.5.1 Mycotoxins
10.5.2 Mushroom Poisoning
10.5.3 Pesticide Poisoning
10.5.4 Adulterations and Additives
10.6 Food Safety and Quality System Development in Nepal
10.7 Major Drivers for Regulatory Environment
10.7.1 Health-Conscious Consumers
10.7.2 Proactive Government
10.7.3 Infrastructures and Skills Set
10.7.4 Market and Price
10.8 Implementation Status of Food Safety in Nepal
10.9 Policy Recommendations for Federal Nepal
10.10 Summary and Conclusions
References
11 Regenerative Agriculture for Sustainable Food Security and Livelihoods in Nepal: A Proposal for Multi-scalar Planning Framework
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Initiatives to Improve Agriculture
11.3 Regenerative Agriculture as an Alternative Way Out
11.4 A Planning Framework for Regenerative Agriculture in Nepal—A Proposal
11.4.1 Pathway for Transitioning into Regenerative Agriculture
11.4.2 A Framework for Bottom-Up Policy and Planning for Regenerative Agriculture
11.5 Conclusions and Policy Implications
Acknowledgements
References
12 Conservation Agriculture Technologies for Cropping Systems Sustainability and Food and Nutrition Security in Nepal
Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.2 CA for Increasing Productivity and Sustainability: A Conceptual Framework
12.3 Development and Scaling-Up of CA-Based Technologies in Nepal
12.3.1 Conservation Agriculture and RCTs: Past, Present, and Future
12.3.1.1 Testing and Verification of CA-Based Technologies
12.3.1.2 Comparative Advantages of CA/RCTs Over Conventional Practices in Hill and Terai Regions
12.3.1.3 CA/RCT-Based Machineries Testing and Verification
12.3.2 Performance of Key CA/RCTs
12.3.2.1 Direct-Seeded Rice
12.3.2.2 Zero Tillage in Wheat
12.3.2.3 Zero Tillage in Maize
12.3.2.4 Surface Seeding in Wheat
12.3.2.5 Brown Manuring in DSR Field
12.3.2.6 Inclusion of Mung Bean in Rice–wheat and Rice–maize Systems
12.3.2.7 Scaling-Out of Appropriate Machinery for Enhancing Mechanization
12.4 Multi-Criteria Assessment of CA/RCTs
12.4.1 Trade-Offs Among Inputs Use, Yield, and Net Profit in DSR and PTR
12.4.2 Trade-Offs Among Yield, Inputs Use, Energy-Use Efficiency, Water Productivity and Global Warming Potential in R–W Systems
12.5 SWOT Analysis of CA/RCT-Based Technologies
12.6 Constraints and Challenges for Adoption of CA/RCTs in Nepal
12.6.1 Complexity of the Farming Systems
12.6.2 Unavailability of Right Machinery and Other Inputs
12.6.3 Inaccessibility of Financial Credits
12.6.4 Disrupted Agricultural Extension Systems and Technical Know-How of the Citizens
12.7 Policy Issues and Implications
12.7.1 Priorities of Support Initiatives
12.7.2 Strengthening Machinery Value Chain
12.7.3 Gender Dimension
12.7.4 Scaling-Up of CA/RCTs
12.8 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
13 Urban Agriculture as a Wellbeing Approach and Policy Agenda for Nepal
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Emergence of Urban Agriculture
13.3 Types of Urban Agriculture and Variations
13.4 Benefits and Challenges of Urban Agriculture
13.5 Wellbeing from Urban Agriculture
13.6 Major Wellbeing Indicators of Urban Agriculture
13.7 Social Wellbeing from Urban Agriculture
13.8 Economic Wellbeing from Urban Agriculture
13.9 Environmental Wellbeing from Urban Agriculture
13.10 Urban Agriculture in Nepal
13.11 Policy Agenda for Urban Agriculture  in Nepal
13.12 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Livestock and Fisheries
14 Livestock Contribution to Food and Nutrition Security in Nepal
Abstract
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Data Sources and Methods
14.3 Livestock Population, Distribition, and Their Growth Trends
14.3.1 Livestock Population and Distribution in Nepal
14.3.2 Livestock Population Trends and Projections
14.3.3 Livestock Breeds
14.4 Productivity, Export, and Import of Livestock Products
14.4.1 Production of Primary Livestock Products
14.4.2 Productivity of Dairy and Meat Animals
14.4.3 Projection Trends of Livestock Products
14.4.4 Processed Livestock Products
14.4.5 Import and Export of Live Animals and Livestock Products
14.4.6 Wild Animals Farming as Source of Food
14.5 Availability of Livestock Products for Food Security
14.6 Challenges, Constraints, and Issues Facing in Livestock Sector
14.6.1 Low Productivity and High Cost of Production
14.6.2 Increase Disease and Parasites in Livestock
14.6.3 Marketing Hurdles and Challenges
14.6.4 Climate Change Impact
14.6.5 Institutional and Policy Issues
14.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
14.7.1 Breed Improvements and Their Promotion
14.7.2 Strengthening Market Infrastructure and Market Support Services
14.7.3 Technology Development and Dissemination
14.7.4 Promotion of Local Production Systems and Practices Including Organic Farming
14.7.5 Building Capacity of Institutions and Stakeholders
14.7.6 Enabling Policy Environments
References
15 Land and Livestock Ownership and Household Food Security in Nepal
Abstract
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Concept, Dimensions, and Measurement of Food Security
15.3 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework and Food Security
15.3.1 The Concepts
15.3.2 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework
15.3.2.1 Vulnerability Context
15.3.2.2 Livelihood Assets
15.3.2.3 Transforming Structures and Processes
15.3.2.4 Livelihood Strategies
15.3.2.5 Livelihood Outcomes
15.3.3 Nepal’s Agricultural Context
15.4 Theoretical and Empirical Review
15.4.1 The Ownership of Land and Livestock and Food Security in Nepal: A Review
15.4.2 Other Potential Factors of Food Security: A Review
15.4.2.1 Human Capital and Food Security
15.4.2.2 Financial Capital and Food Security
15.4.2.3 Social Capital and Food Security
15.4.2.4 Physical Capital and Food Security
15.5 Methods
15.5.1 Data
15.5.2 Measures
15.5.2.1 Outcome Measures
15.5.2.2 Explanatory Measures
15.5.2.3 Controls
15.5.3 Analytic Strategy
15.6 Results and Discussion
15.6.1 Descriptive Results
15.6.2 Multivariate Results
15.6.2.1 Land Ownership and Food Security
15.6.2.2 Livestock Ownership and Food Security
15.6.2.3 Other Factors Influencing Food Security
15.7 Conclusion and Policy Implications
References
16 Sustainable Livestock Production Safeguarding Animal and Public Health in Post-COVID Nepal
Abstract
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Status of Livestock Production and Challenges in Nepal
16.3 Policy Status and Gaps
16.4 Livestock Sector Development and Sustainable Development Goals
16.5 Major Zoonotic Diseases and Their Importance for Animal and Human Health in Nepal
16.6 COVID-19 and Its Impact on Livestock Sector in Nepal
16.7 One Health Approach and Its Importance to Tackle Animal and Human Health Challenges
16.8 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
17 Changes in Transhumance Systems in Nepal: Analysing Socio-ecological Impacts Using Driver-Pressure- State-Impact-Response Framework
Abstract
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Key Features of Transhumance System
17.2.1 Transhumance as a Type of Pastoral Systems
17.2.2 Components of Transhumance System
17.2.3 Seasonal and Recurring Movement of Livestock: A Key Feature of Transhumance
17.2.4 Livestock Production and Transhumance in Nepal
17.3 Transhumance as a Social-Ecological System
17.4 DPSIR Framework to Analyse Transhumance Systems in Nepal
17.4.1 Drivers of Change to the Transhumance Systems
17.4.1.1 Global/Regional Level Drivers
17.4.1.2 National-Level Drivers
17.4.1.3 Local-Level Drivers
17.4.2 Actual Pressure from the Drivers of Change
17.4.3 Current State or Trend of Transhumance Systems
17.4.4 Possible Impacts of Current Trends in Transhumance Systems
17.4.4.1 Social Impacts
17.4.4.2 Ecological Impacts
17.4.5 Likely Future Responses of Transhumance Systems
17.5 Summary or Key Findings Using DPSIR Framework
17.6 Conclusions and Policy Implications
References
18 Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture for Food and Nutrition Security in Nepal
Abstract
18.1 Background and Introduction
18.2 Why Fish?
18.3 Fish Consumption
18.4 Governance, Priorities and UN’s SDGs
18.5 Fisheries
18.5.1 Water Resources
18.5.2 Capture Fisheries
18.5.3 Fishing Communities and Methods
18.6 Aquaculture
18.6.1 Culture Systems
18.6.1.1 Ponds
18.6.1.2 Raceways
18.6.1.3 Cages
18.6.2 Small-Scale Integrated Aquaculture
18.6.3 Commercial Aquaculture
18.6.4 Advanced Aquaculture
18.6.5 Aquaculture and Employment
18.7 Education and Human Resources
18.8 Fish Consumption
18.9 Fish Markets and Import–Export
18.10 Policy Recommendations
18.10.1 Education, Research and Development
18.10.2 Fisheries Management Policy
18.10.3 Aquaculture Development Policy
18.11 Conclusions
References
Forestry, Community Forestry, and Agroforestry
19 Ecosystems Services from Community Forestry: Prospects and Challenges for Improving Local Livelihoods in Nepal
Abstract
19.1 Introduction
19.2 The National Context: Ecosystem Services and Community Forestry
19.3 Data Sources and Methods
19.4 Findings
19.4.1 Community-Level Ecosystem Services Management Practices
19.4.1.1 Traditional Forest Products and Services
19.4.1.2 Newly Added Ecosystem Services in Community Level Forest Management
19.4.2 Collective Action and Equitable Access
19.5 Discussion: Prospects, Challenges, and Policy Implications
19.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
20 An Assessment of Selective Logging Policies and Practices in Nepal
Abstract
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Selective Logging and Its Genesis
20.3 Forest Management and Harvesting in Nepal
20.4 Methodology
20.4.1 Case Study Area
20.4.2 Data Collection and Analysis
20.5 Results
20.5.1 Policies and Practices of Selective Logging in Nepal
20.5.2 Selective Logging Practices and Its Impacts on Timber Production and Recovery in Nepal
20.6 Discussions
20.7 Implication of the Study
20.8 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
21 Assessing the Potential of Agroforestry in Nepal: Socio-economic and Environmental Perspectives
Abstract
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Agroforestry as a Source of Household Economy
21.3 Agroforestry as a Land Restoration Strategy
21.4 Agroforestry as a Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Strategy
21.5 Constraints to and Opportunity for Agroforestry Promotion in Nepal
21.5.1 Constraints
21.5.1.1 Land Size
21.5.1.2 Ambiguity in Policy
21.5.1.3 Lack of Market Infrastructure
21.5.1.4 Lack of Institutional Set up for Agroforestry Research and Development
21.5.1.5 Lack of Awareness/Knowledge/Skills on Agroforestry Management
21.5.1.6 Lack of Access to Credit Facility
21.5.1.7 High Initial Investment and Transaction Costs
21.6 Opportunities
21.6.1 Land Abandonment
21.6.2 Scope of Carbon Credits Under the Market-Based and PES Mechanisms
21.6.3 Favourable Policy
21.6.4 Agroforestry Under the Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) Regime
21.7 Way Forward/Conclusion
References
Cross-Cutting Topics
22 Achieving Water, Energy, and Food Security in Nepal Through Nexus Approach to Planning and Development
Abstract
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Water–Energy–Food Security: Global Scenario
22.1.2 Water–Energy–Food Security: South Asia Scenario
22.2 Understanding Water–Energy–Food Nexus
22.3 W–E–F Nexus Framework in the Context of Nepal
22.4 Current State of Nepal’s Agriculture
22.5 Potential for Increased Production and Revenue in Nepal
22.5.1 Currently Irrigated and Potentially Irrigable Lands
22.5.2 Groundwater Extraction for Irrigation
22.6 W–E–F Nexus and Multipurpose Development Projects
22.7 Case Studies on W–F–E Nexus Approach
22.7.1 Case Study 1: Sunkoshi Marin Diversion Multipurpose Project
22.7.2 Case Study 2: Bheri Babai Diversion Multipurpose Project
22.7.3 Case Study 3: Comparing Conventional Tillage with Zero Tillage in Rice-Based Cropping Systems in the EGP: A W–E–F Nexus Perspective
22.8 W–E–F Nexus and Climate Smart Agriculture
22.8.1 Promote Climate Smart Agriculture
22.8.2 Conduct Tradeoff Analysis of Irrigation Systems and Modeling for Profit Maximization
22.9 W–E–F Nexus and SDGs
22.10 Conclusions and Policy Implications
References
23 Potential of Crop Simulation Models to Increase Food and Nutrition Security Under a Changing Climate in Nepal
Abstract
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Simulation Model Application Framework
23.3 Evaluations and Applications of Crop Simulation Models
23.3.1 Evaluations and Applications in South Asia and Nepal
23.3.2 Increasing Cereal Yields and Improving Food Security in Nepal
23.3.3 Estimating and Understanding Yield Potential and Yield Gaps
23.3.4 Simulating the Impact of Climate Change on Cereal Productivity
23.3.5 Simulation Models as DSS Tools for Adaptation Strategies and Input Optimization
23.3.5.1 Fertilizer Application and Site-Specific Nutrient Management
23.3.5.2 Irrigation Scheduling, Water Management, and Water and N Interaction in Cereals
23.3.5.3 Effects of Crop Varieties and Time of Planting on Simulated Yields
23.3.6 Matching Productivity Required for Self-Sufficiency
23.4 Policy Implications and Recommendations, and Limitations in Use of Simulation Models
23.4.1 Limitations in Model Use
23.4.2 Policy Implications and Recommendations
23.5 Conclusions
References
24 Agrobiodiversity Management for Gender-Equitable Adaptation to Climate Change: Investigating the Gendered Roots of Vulnerability in the Nepal Himalayas
Abstract
24.1 Introduction
24.2 The Himalayan Context of Agriculture, Climate Change and Gender-Based Inequalities
24.3 Research Methodology, the Overall Context and the Study Site
24.4 Analysis of Changing Agrobiodiversity Management Practices and Gender Relations
24.4.1 Abandonment of Upland Rice and Foxtail Millet and Impacts on Livelihoods and Gender
24.4.2 Adopting High-Yielding Rice Varieties, Gender Equality and Scientific Knowledge
24.5 Exploring Gender and Adaptation Link: Three Key Themes
24.6 Conclusions
References
25 Correction to: Agriculture, Natural Resources and Food Security