Advances in Biomedical Polymers and Composites: Materials and Applications

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Advances in Biomedical Polymers and Composites: Materials and Applications
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Contents
List of contributors
1. Introduction to biomedical polymer and composites
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of polymers and composites
1.3 Fabrication techniques polymer composites
1.3.1 Electrospinning
1.3.2 Melt extrusion
1.3.3 Solution mixing
1.3.4 Latex technology
1.4 Polymers and their composites for biomedical applications
1.4.1 Natural polymers and their composites
1.4.1.1 Collagen
1.4.1.2 Silk
1.4.1.3 Hyaluronic acid
1.4.1.4 Chitosan
1.4.1.5 Cellulose
1.4.2 Synthetic polymers and their composites
1.4.2.1 Polycaprolactone
1.4.2.2 Poly(L-lactic acid)
1.4.2.3 Poly(methyl methacrylate)
1.4.2.4 Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid
1.4.2.5 Polyvinylidene fluoride
1.4.2.6 Poly(ethylene glycol)
1.4.3 Gas-permeable polymeric membranes
1.4.4 Other polymeric composites
1.5 Challenges and future trends
1.6 Conclusion
References
2. Foundation of composites
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification of composites
2.3 History of composites
2.3.1 Fiberglass in 20th century
2.3.2 Composite material in our daily life
2.4 Why composites?
2.5 Advantages of composites
2.5.1 Design flexibility
2.5.2 Light weight
2.5.3 High strength
2.5.4 Strength related to weight
2.5.5 Corrosion resistance
2.5.6 High-impact strength
2.5.7 Consolidation of many parts
2.5.8 Dimensional stability
2.5.9 Nonconductive
2.5.10 Nonmagnetic
2.5.11 Radar transparent
2.5.12 Low thermal conductivity
2.5.13 Durable
2.6 Applications of composites
2.6.1 Aerospace/aircrafts
2.6.2 Appliances
2.6.3 Automobile and transportation
2.6.4 Infrastructure
2.6.5 Environmental
2.6.6 Applications of electricity
2.7 Limitation of composites
2.8 Biocomposites and classification
2.8.1 Biomedical composites
2.8.2 Basic requirements and parameters for biomedical applications
2.8.2.1 Biocompatibility
2.8.2.2 Corrosion
2.8.2.3 Mechanical properties
2.8.2.4 Pores
2.8.2.5 Eye glasses
2.8.2.6 Biodegradability and bioabsorbable polymer
2.8.2.7 High cell adhesion and less inflammation
2.8.2.8 Wear resistance
2.8.3 Biomedical polymer composites
2.8.3.1 Natural biomedical composites
2.8.3.2 Synthetic biomedical composites
2.9 Applications of biocomposites
2.9.1 Tissue engineering
2.9.2 Orthopedic
2.9.3 Dental
2.9.4 External prosthetic and orthotics
2.9.5 Biocompatibility on skin
2.9.6 Healing of fracture and wound dressing
2.10 Fabrication techniques of biomedical composites
2.10.1 Hand layup molding
2.10.2 Open contact molding method
2.10.3 Liquid molding and injection molding
2.10.4 Vacuum resin transfer molding process
2.10.5 Compression molding
2.10.6 Tube rolling
2.10.7 Automated fiber/tape placement process
2.11 Conclusion
References
3. Biopolymer-based composites for drug delivery applications—a scientometric analysis
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Scientometric analysis
3.2.1 Coauthorship analysis
3.2.2 Cooccurrence analysis
3.2.2.1 Chitosan
3.2.2.2 Alginate
3.2.2.3 Cellulose
3.2.2.4 Hyaluronic acid
3.2.3 Analysis of the citations of the articles
References
4. Characteristicsand characterization techniques of bacterial cellulose for biomedical applications—a short treatise
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Biomedical applications of bacterial cellulose
4.2.1 Wound healing applications
4.2.2 Diagnosis of ovarian cancer
4.2.3 Shape memory material
4.2.4 Preventing deterioration of salmon muscle and slowing down the lipid oxidation
4.2.5 Lipase immobilization
4.2.6 Tissue engineering
4.2.7 Implantable devices in regenerative medicine
4.2.8 Drug delivery
4.2.9 Bone healing
4.2.10 Wound dressing
4.3 Conclusion
References
5. Engineering scaffolds for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Scaffolds properties and characterization
5.3 Fabrication of scaffolds
5.3.1 Scaffold fabrication methods
5.3.2 Patient-specific scaffolds
Acknowledgments
Declaration of conflict of interest
References
6. Recenttrendsinpolymeric composites and blends for three-dimensional printing and bioprinting
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Need of synergistic approach in polymeric materials
6.3 Blends and composites of natural and synthetic polymers
6.3.1 Synthetic polymers based composites
6.3.2 Natural polymers based composites
6.4 3D printing techniques employed to print polymeric materials
6.4.1 Extrusion-based 3D printing
6.4.1.1 Fused deposition modeling
6.4.1.2 3D plotting
6.4.2 Vat polymerization
6.4.3 Powder bed fusion
6.4.3.1 Selective laser sintering
6.4.3.2 Binder jetting or powder liquid 3D printing
6.4.4 Laser-assisted bioprinting
6.5 Application of value-added polymers
6.6 Current challenges and possible solutions
6.7 Conclusion
References
7. Polymers for additive manufacturing and 4D-printing for tissue regenerative applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Polymers for 4D printing
7.2.1 Hydrogels
7.2.2 Shape memory polymers
7.2.3 Elastomer actuators
7.2.4 Thermoresponsive polymers
7.3 Application of 4D printing technology
7.3.1 Engineered tissue constructs
7.3.1.1 Soft tissue regenerative implants
7.3.1.2 Hard tissue regenerative implants
7.3.2 Medical devices
7.3.3 Drug delivery implants
Reference
8. Bioprinting of hydrogels for tissue engineering and drug screening applications
8.1 Advancements in bioprinting technology
8.2 Bioinks
8.3 Hydrogel bioinks
8.4 Applications of hydrogel bioinks
8.4.1 Bone tissue engineering
8.4.2 Cartilage tissue engineering
8.4.3 Cardiac tissue engineering
8.4.4 Skin tissue engineering
8.4.5 Vascular tissue engineering
8.4.6 Neural tissue engineering
8.4.7 Drug screening
8.5 Challenges of bioprinted hydrogels in tissue engineering and drug screening
8.6 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
9. Smart polymers for biomedical applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Temperature-sensitive smart polymers
9.3 Applications of temperature-sensitive smart polymers
9.4 pH-sensitive smart polymers
9.4.1 Applications
9.5 Photosensitive polymers
9.5.1 Applications
9.6 Enzyme-responsive polymers
9.6.1 Applications
9.7 Conclusion
References
10. Chitosan-based nanoparticles for ocular drug delivery
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Anatomy and protection mechanism of eye
10.3 Properties of chitosan
10.4 Some recent applications of chitosan nanoparticles in ocular delivery
10.5 Conclusion
References
11. Appraisal of conducting polymers for potential bioelectronics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sensors and actuators used on conducting polymers
11.3 Energy storage from conducting polymer
11.4 Energy harvesting based on polymer
11.5 Organic light-emitting diodes
11.5 Organic light-emitting diodes
11.6 Electrochromic materials and devices
References
12. Shape-memory polymers
12.1 Introduction
12.2.1 Cross-linking
12.2 Various shape-memory polymers
12.2 Various shape-memory polymers
12.2.2 Thermal transitions
12.2.3 Categorization of shape-memory polymers
12.3 Mechanism of shape-memory polymers
12.4 Composites using shape-memory polymers
12.4.1 Functionalization of shape-memory polymers by silicate
12.4.2 Functionalization of shape-memory polymers by magnetic particles
12.4.3 Functionalization of shape-memory polymers by carbon fillers
12.4.4 Functionalization of shape-memory polymers by biocompatible mater
12.5 Limitations of shape-memory polymers
12.5.1 Recovery time and activation process
12.5.2 Recovery force and work capacity
12.6 Conclusion
References
13. Rapid prototyping
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Preprocessing, the process, and postprocessing in rapid prototyping
13.2.1 Preprocessing
13.2.2 The process
13.2.3 Postprocessing
13.3 Contemporary rapid prototyping systems
13.3.1 Available rapid prototyping systems
13.3.1.1 Selective laser sintering
13.3.1.2 Selective laser melting
13.3.1.3 Laminated object manufacturing
13.3.1.4 Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
13.3.1.5 Stereolithography
13.4 Applications
13.5 Advancements in the rapid prototyping technology
13.5.1 Improvement of product quality
13.5.2 Improvement on versatility of rapid prototyping
13.5.3 Multifunctional fabrication process
13.5.4 Printable and embeddable functions
13.5.4.1 Sensors
13.5.4.2 Actuations
13.5.4.3 Thermal management
13.5.4.4 Energy storage
13.5.4.5 Antennas and electromagnetic structures
13.5.4.6 Propulsion
13.5.5 Fiber-reinforced polymer composites
13.5.6 Functionally graded materials using rapid prototyping
13.5.7 Comparison with traditional manufacturing
References
14. Self-assembled polymer nanocomposites in biomedical applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Methods of preparation of self-assembled polymer nanocomposites
14.2.1 Polymer grafting on/from the modified surface of nanoparticles
14.2.2 Layer-by layer assembly technique
14.3 Applications of the self-assembled polymer nanocomposites in biomedical science
14.3.1 Drug delivery
14.4 Future prospects and conclusion
References
15. Thermoresponsive polymers and polymeric composites
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Thermoresponsive polymers
15.1.2 Thermoresponsive polymeric composites
15.2 Mechanisms
15.2.1 Protein adsorption
15.2.2 Cells adhesion and attachments
15.2.3 Thermoresponsive behaviors
15.2.3.1 Principle for thermoresponsive polymers showing UCST and LCST
15.2.3.2 Type of thermoresponsive polymers
15.2.3.2.1 Poly(N-alkyl-substituted acrylamide)s
15.2.3.2.2 Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam)
15.2.3.2.3 Poly(2-alkyl-2-oxazoline)s
15.2.3.2.4 Poly(ether)s
15.2.3.2.5 Poly(N,N-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)
15.2.3.2.6 Poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)s
15.3 Form of thermoresponsive polymers and polymeric composites
15.3.1 Hydrogels
15.3.2 Nanoparticles
15.3.3 Micelles
15.3.4 Films
15.3.5 Interpenetrating networks
15.3.6 Polymersomes
15.4 Applications of thermoresponsive polymers
15.4.1 Vascular applications
15.4.2 Gene delivery
15.4.3 Drug delivery
15.4.4 Wound healing
15.4.4.1 Wound healing phases
15.4.4.1.1 Hemostasis
15.4.4.1.2 Inflammation
15.4.4.1.3 Proliferation
15.4.4.1.4 Tissue remodeling
15.4.4.2 Application of thermoresponsive polymers in wound healing
15.5 Future perspectives
15.6 Conclusion
References
Further reading
16. Ceramic particle-dispersed polymer composites
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Matrices used in ceramic particle dispersed polymer composites
16.2.1 Biodegradable matrices
16.2.1.1 Modification or recycling polymer matrices
16.2.2 Nonbiodegradable matrices
16.2.2.1 Thermoplastics
16.2.2.2 Thermosetting
16.3 Reinforcements used in ceramic particle reinforced composites
16.3.1 Reinforcement from natural resources
16.3.2 Reinforcements from synthetic resources
16.4 Fabrication of ceramic particulate dispersed composites
16.4.1 Methods of composite fabrication
16.4.1.1 Methods for thermoplastics
16.4.1.1.1 Low-pressure processing techniques
16.4.1.1.2 Thermoplastic composites considering vacuum forming
16.4.1.1.3 Autoclave forming of thermoplastic composites
16.4.1.1.4 Diaphragm forming
16.4.1.1.5 Bladder inflation molding
16.4.1.1.6 Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM)
16.4.1.1.7 Injection-compression technique
16.4.1.1.8 High-pressure processing
16.4.1.1.9 Preheating technology for stamp-forming processes
16.4.1.1.10 Blank-holders and membrane forces
16.4.1.1.11 Continuous compression molding
16.4.1.2 Methods for thermosetting
16.4.1.2.1 Open molding
16.4.1.2.2 Closed molding
16.5 Curing of the composites
16.5.1 Room-temperature curing
16.5.2 High-temperature curing
16.6 Different types of ceramic particle dispersed composites
16.6.1 Particulate-reinforced composites
16.6.2 Hybrid composites
16.7 Characterization
16.7.1 Structural properties
16.7.1.1 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) analysis
16.7.2 Charpy impact strength test
16.7.3 Atomic force microscopy
16.7.3.1 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis
16.7.3.2 Tensile testing
16.7.3.3 Flexural testing
16.7.3.4 Izod impact test
16.7.3.5 Thermogravimetric analysis
16.8 Summary
References
17. Electrospinning for biomedical applications
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Theory of electrospinning
17.1.2 Principle of electrospinning
17.2 Parameters influencing fiber production
17.2.1 System parameters
17.2.1.1 Applied voltage
17.2.1.2 Flow rate
17.2.1.3 Tip to collector distance
17.2.1.4 Collector types
17.2.2 Solution parameters
17.2.2.1 Concentration
17.2.2.2 Surface tension
17.2.2.3 Molecular weight
17.2.2.4 Conductivity/surface charge density
17.2.3 Ambient parameters
17.3 Polymers for fabrication of electrospun fibers
17.3.1 Synthetic polymers
17.3.1.1 Poly L-lactic-co-glycolic acid
17.3.1.2 PLLA-polylactic acid
17.3.1.3 Polycaprolactone
17.3.1.4 Polyurethane
17.3.2 Natural polymers
17.3.2.1 Gelatin
17.3.2.2 Chitosan
17.3.2.3 Silk
17.3.3 Composite and hybrid
17.4 Applications of electro-spun fibers in tissue engineering applications
17.4.1 Use of electro-spun polymers in neural tissue engineering
17.4.1.1 Use of electro-spun fibers in cardiac tissue engineering
17.5 Conclusion
References
Further reading
18. Advances in biomedical polymers and composites: Drug delivery systems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Synthesis of polymer composites
18.2.1 Hydrothermal method
18.2.2 In situ polymerization
18.2.3 Electrospinning method
18.2.4 Three-dimensional printing technology
18.3 Characterization and drug release properties
18.3.1 X-ray diffraction
18.3.2 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
18.3.3 Thermal analysis
18.3.4 Scanning electron microscopy
18.3.5 Determination of drug loading into composites
18.3.6 Estimation of drug release from composites
18.3.7 Mathematical treatment of drug release kinetics
18.3.8 Mechanisms for controlling drug release from composites
18.4 Applications in drug delivery
18.4.1 Tumor-targeted drug therapy
18.4.2 Ophthalmic drug delivery
18.4.3 Buccal drug delivery
18.4.4 Drug delivery for bone tissue regeneration
18.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
19. Natural gums of plant and microbial origin for tissue engineering applications
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Scientometric analysis
19.2 Scientometric analysis
19.3 Natural gums
19.3.1 Gellan gum
19.3.1.1 Applications
19.3.2 Xanthan gum
19.3.2.1 Applications
19.3.3 Guar gum
19.3.3.1 Applications
19.4 Conclusion
References
20. Polymers and nanomaterials as gene delivery systems
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Types of gene delivery
20.2.1 Germline gene therapy
20.2.2 Somatic gene therapy
20.2.2.1 Ex vivo delivery
20.2.2.2 In situ delivery
20.2.2.3 In vivo delivery
20.3 Methods and techniques used in gene delivery
20.3.1 Nanoparticle gene delivery systems
20.3.1.1 Mesoporous silica nanoparticles
20.3.2 Liposome gene delivery systems
20.3.3 Microbubble gene delivery systems
20.3.4 Viral and nonviral gene delivery systems
20.3.4.1 Viral gene delivery systems
20.3.4.2 Nonviral gene delivery system
20.4 Polymers and bioceramics for gene delivery
20.4.1 Natural polymer chitosan
20.4.2 Synthetic polymers
20.4.2.1 Thermoresponsive polymers
20.4.2.1.1 Polyethylenimine
20.5 Applications of gene delivery
20.5.1 Cancer
20.5.2 Cardiovascular
20.5.3 Kidney
20.5.4 Bone
Acknowledgment
References
21. Essential oil-loaded biopolymeric films for wound healing applications
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Wound healing physiology
21.3 Essential oils
21.3.1 Mechanisms of promoting wound healing by essential oils
21.3.2 Methods of preparation of essential oil-loaded films
21.3.3 Essential oil-loaded biopolymeric films for wound healing applications
21.4 Conclusion
References
22. Biomedical antifouling polymer nanocomposites
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Mechanism of antifouling
22.2.1 Strategies of antifouling
22.2.2 Natural antifouling
22.3 Biomedical antifouling
22.3.1 Nanogel engineering
22.3.2 Zwitterionic nanomaterials
22.3.3 Superhydrophobic surfaces and wettability
22.4 Computational studies
22.4.1 Exploring the antifouling properties of polymers using computational methods
22.4.2 Effect of surface hydration on antifouling properties
22.4.3 Polyzwitterions
22.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
23. Application of antiviral activity of polymer
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Types of antiviral polymers
23.2.1 Polysaccharides
23.2.2 Antiviral peptide polymer
23.2.3 Nucleic acid polymers
23.2.4 Polymer-drug conjugates
23.2.5 Metal containing polymers
23.2.6 Dendrimers
23.3 Application of antiviral polymers
23.3.1 Drug delivery system
23.3.2 Polymers in protective application
23.3.3 Food packaging
23.4 Concluding remarks
References
24. Biosensor: fundamentals, biomolecular component, and applications
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Fundamentals of biosensor
24.2.1 Principle of biosensor
24.3 Classification of the biosensors
24.4 Characteristics of the biosensors
24.5 Biopolymers for the development of biosensors
24.5.1 Biopolymer composites
24.6 Biomolecular component of biosensor
24.7 Recent trends in biosensors
24.8 Recent applications of biosensors
24.9 Merits and limitation of biosensors
References
25. Polymeric materials in microbial cell encapsulation
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Encapsulation method
25.2.1 Nanoprecipitation
25.2.2 Emulsification
25.2.3 Coacervation
25.2.4 Capillary encapsulation method
25.2.5 Electrospinning
25.2.6 Layer-by-layer self-assembly method
25.2.7 Spray drying
25.3 Applications
25.3.1 Intestinal tract health
25.3.2 Bioavailability and nutrient synthesis
25.3.3 Probiotics’ antimicrobial potential
25.3.4 Cancer prevention
25.3.5 Tissue engineering
25.3.6 Methylene blue dye remediation from water
25.3.7 In Agriculture and the food processing
25.3.8 Drug delivery
25.4 Conclusion
25.5 Future considerations
References
26. Carbon nanotubes based composites for biomedical applications
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Carbon nanotube based composites for biomedical applications
26.2.1 Carbon nanotube nanocomposites for biosensors
26.2.2 Carbon nanotube nanocomposites for drug delivery
26.2.3 Carbon nanotube nanocomposites for cancer treatment
26.2.4 Carbon nanotube nanocomposites for tissue engineering
26.3 Toxicity of carbon nanotubes
26.4 Future prospective
26.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Conflict of interest
References
27. Cryogels as smart polymers in biomedical applications
27.1 Introduction
27.2 What is cryogel?
27.3 Cryogel preparation method
27.4 The precursors in cryogel preparation
27.5 The cross-linking strategy in cryogel preparation
27.6 Characterization of cryogels
27.7 The biomedical applications of the cryogels
27.7.1 Cryogels in bioseparation process
27.7.2 Cryogels in wound dressing applications
27.7.3 Cryogels in tissue engineering applications
27.7.3.1 Cryogels as bioreactors
27.7.3.2 Cryogels in cell separations
27.7.3.3 Cryogels as tissue scaffolds
27.7.4 Cryogels in drug release applications
27.8 Conclusion
References
28. Naturally derived ceramics-polymer composite for biomedical applications
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Preparation of biogenic-derived biocomposites
28.2.1 Materials
28.2.2 Various biocomposites from biowaste materials
28.2.3 Zinc-substituted hydroxyapatite/cellulose nanocrystals biocomposite
28.2.4 Hydroxyapatite reinforced with polyvinylpyrrolidone/aloe vera biocomposite
28.2.5 Hydroxyapatite/carboxymethyl cellulose/sodium alginate biocomposite
28.2.6 Characterization
• Bioactivity assessment
• Mechanical studies
• Antibacterial activity
• In vitro cell viability analysis
28.3 Results and discussion
28.3.1 Egg shell derived hydroxyapatite/cellulose nanocrystals biocomposite
• FTIR analysis
• XRD analysis
• SEM and EDX investigations
• Mechanical characterization
• Antibacterial activity
28.3.2 Crab shell extracted hydroxyapatite/poly (vinylpolypyrrolidone)/aloe vera biocomposite
• FTIR analysis
• XRD analysis
• SEM analysis
• Mechanical characterizations
• Contact angle measurements
• Antibacterial activity
• In vitro cytocompatibility analysis
28.3.3 Fish bone derived hydroxyapatite/biopolymer composite
• FTIR spectroscopic analysis
• X-ray diffraction investigation
• Microstructural evaluation
• In vitro bioactivity assessment
• Microhardness analysis
• Antibacterial analysis
28.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
29. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for biomedical applications
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Molecular imprinting technology
29.2.1 Key parameters for the preparation of molecularly imprinted polymers
29.2.2 Approaches for the preparation of molecularly imprinted polymers
29.3 Applications of molecularly imprinted polymers in biomedical science
29.3.1 Drug delivery
29.3.2 Bio-imaging and cancer therapy
29.3.3 Sensing and separation processes
29.4 Conclusions and future perspectives
References
30. Natural biopolymer scaffolds for bacteriophage delivery in the medical field
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Phage therapy
30.2.1 Regulatory approval of phage therapy
30.2.2 Phage application in medicine
30.3 Bacteriophage encapsulation
30.3.1 Encapsulation of phages in natural polymers
30.3.2 Phage encapsulation for wound healing applications
30.3.3 Phage encapsulation to prevent and manage gastrointestinal diseases
30.4 Conclusions and future perspectives
Funding
References
Index