Advances in Additive Manufacturing: Artificial Intelligence, Nature-Inspired, and Biomanufacturing

Front Cover
Advances in Additive Manufacturing: Artificial Intelligence, Nature-Inspired, and Biomanufacturing
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
I. Introduction
1 Introduction to additive manufacturing technologies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Brief history of additive manufacturing
1.3 Classes of additive manufacturing
1.3.1 Vat photopolymerization
1.3.2 Material jetting
1.3.3 Binder jetting process
1.3.4 Material extrusion
1.3.5 Sheet lamination
1.3.6 Powder bed fusion
1.3.7 Directed energy deposition (DED)
1.4 Areas of application of additive manufacturing
1.4.1 Foods and housing
1.4.2 Healthcare
1.4.3 Automobiles and aerospace
1.4.4 Electronics
1.4.5 Consumers product and jewelry
1.5 Summary
References
Further reading
2 Trends in additive manufacturing: an exploratory study
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Research objectives of the chapter
2.3 Comparison of additive manufacturing with traditional manufacturing processes
2.4 Additive manufacturing
2.5 What and why of additive manufacturing
2.6 Development trends in additive manufacturing
2.7 Classification of additive manufacturing methods based on material characteristics
2.7.1 Powder-based additive manufacturing
2.7.1.1 Electron beam melting
2.7.1.2 Selective laser melting
2.7.1.3 Selective laser sintering
2.7.1.4 Laser metal deposition
2.7.1.5 Three-dimensional printing
2.7.2 Liquid-based additive manufacturing
2.7.2.1 Multijet modeling
2.7.2.2 Rapid freeze prototyping
2.7.2.3 Stereolithography
2.7.3 Solid-/filament-based additive manufacturing
2.7.3.1 Fused deposition Modeling
2.7.3.2 Laminated object manufacturing
2.7.3.3 Freeze form extrusion fabrication
2.8 Extensive capabilities of additive manufacturing in the current scenario
2.9 Application areas of additive manufacturing
2.9.1 Medical manufacturing
2.9.2 Aerospace and automotive manufacturing
2.9.3 Architectural and jewelry manufacturing
2.10 Challenges being taken up by additive manufacturing
2.11 Future applications and technologies of additive manufacturing
2.12 Conclusion
References
Further reading
3 Addictive manufacturing in the Health 4.0 era: a systematic review
3.1 Background and introduction
3.2 Additive manufacturing process and technologies
3.3 Application in the health-care industry
3.4 Materials and methods
3.4.1 Information sources
3.4.2 Search strategy and study selection
3.4.3 Data collection process
3.5 Results
3.6 Discussion
3.6.1 Global additive manufacturing market
3.6.2 Advantages of additive manufacturing processes
3.6.3 Challenges of additive manufacturing processes
3.6.4 Role of additive manufacturing during pandemic COVID-19
3.7 Conclusion
References
4 Integration of reverse engineering with additive manufacturing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept of RE
4.3 Product development by RE and AM
4.4 Integrating RE with AM
4.4.1 Integration of RE and AM by constructing a 3D CAD model from the point cloud and obtaining an STL model for the AM system
4.4.1.1 Data acquisition
4.4.1.2 Processing of acquired data
4.4.1.2.1 Edge-based segmentation
4.4.1.2.2 Region-based segmentation
4.4.1.2.3 Attributes-based segmentation
4.4.1.2.4 Model-based segmentation
4.4.1.3 Surface fitting and CAD model construction
4.4.2 Integrating RE and AM by direct generation of STL model file from point cloud
4.4.3 Integration of RE and AM by Direct Conversion of Data Points to Sliced File
4.5 Data digitization techniques in RE
4.5.1 Noncontact data acquisition RE techniques
4.5.1.1 Active data acquisition techniques
4.5.1.2 Passive data acquisition techniques
4.5.1.3 Medical imaging RE techniques
4.5.1.4 Contact-based RE techniques
4.6 Summary
References
II. Additive manufacturing technologies
5 Recent innovative developments on additive manufacturing technologies using polymers
5.1 A brief introduction to AM technologies
5.2 AM market and innovation opportunities
5.3 Innovative AM technologies
5.3.1 AM based on FDM or fused filament fabrication
5.3.1.1 Delta, polar, and selective compliance assembly robot arm (SCARA) FDM
5.3.1.2 Koala 3D printer
5.3.1.3 Continuous 3D printing
5.3.1.4 Melt electrospinning/FDM printing
5.3.1.5 Multiaxis 3D printing
5.3.1.5.1 Rotational axis 3D printing
5.3.1.5.2 Multitool 3D printers
5.3.1.5.3 3D microwave printing
5.3.1.6 Continuous carbon fiber printing
5.3.1.7 AddJoining process
5.3.1.8 Metal parts extrusion via FDM
5.3.1.9 FDM and sintering
5.3.2 AM based on VAT photopolymerization: SLA or digital light processing (DLP)
5.3.2.1 Micro-SLA and direct laser writing (DLW)
5.3.2.2 Computed axial lithography
5.3.2.3 Continuous Liquid Interface Production
5.3.2.4 Continuous single droplet 3DP
5.3.2.5 Freeze-drying DLP
5.3.2.6 High area rapid printing
5.3.3 AM based on powder bed fusion (PBF) or SLS
5.3.3.1 Continuous 3D printing–SLS
5.4 Conclusions and future perspective
Acknowledgments
References
6 Printing file formats for additive manufacturing technologies
6.1 Introduction
6.2 3D model representation data formats in additive manufacturing techniques
6.2.1 Standard tessellation language format
6.2.2 Additive manufacturing format
6.2.3 3D manufacturing format
6.2.4 OBJ format
6.2.5 Virtual reality modeling language format
6.2.6 Jupiter Tessellation format
6.2.7 Extensible 3D format
6.2.8 Cubital Facet List format
6.2.9 Solid interchange format
6.2.10 Surface triangle hinted format
6.3 Comparison of 3D model representation data formats
6.4 Sliced model representation data formats in additive manufacturing
6.4.1 Common layer interface format
6.4.2 Layer exchange ASCII format
6.4.3 Stereolithography contour format
6.4.4 Hewlett Packard Graphics Language format
6.4.5 Comparison of sliced model representation data formats in additive manufacturing
6.5 Other additive manufacturing interfaces
6.5.1 Layered manufacturing interface
6.5.2 Rapid prototyping interface
6.5.3 Voxel-based modeling method
6.6 Data exchange standards utilization in additive manufacturing
6.6.1 Standard for the Exchange of Product Model standard
6.6.2 Initial graphics exchange specification standard
6.7 Discussion
6.8 Summary
References
7 Additive manufacturing techniques used for preparation of scaffolds in bone repair and regeneration
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Scaffold design
7.2.1 Computer-aided design-based methods
7.2.2 Optimization of topology
7.2.3 Reverse modeling
7.2.4 Mathematical modeling
7.3 Additive manufacturing techniques
7.3.1 Selective laser sintering
7.3.2 Selective laser melting
7.3.3 Extrusion-based printing
7.3.4 Fused deposition modeling
7.3.5 Electron beam melting
7.3.6 Stereolithography
7.3.7 Powder inkjet printing
7.3.8 Electrospinning
7.4 Posttreatments
7.4.1 Heat treatment
7.4.2 Surface treatment
7.4.2.1 Chemical methods of surface modification
7.4.2.2 Acid etching
7.4.2.3 Electrochemical anodization
7.4.3 Coatings
7.4.3.1 Inorganic coatings
7.4.3.2 Organic biomolecule coatings
7.5 Challenges and conclusions
References
8 Cold spray technology: a perspective of nature-inspired feature processing and biomanufacturing by a heatless additive me...
8.1 Introduction: a heatless additive method for nature-inspired, bio- and nanofeatures
8.2 Cold spraying principle and processing conditions for nanopowders
8.3 Development of superhydrophobic properties using the cold spray additive method
8.4 Cold spray additive biomanufacturing of biocompatible coating for surgical implant
8.5 Concluding remarks on the use of CS as nature-inspired and/or biomanufacturing
References
9 Preprocessing and postprocessing in additive manufacturing
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Preprocessing in additive manufacturing
9.2.1 Preparation of CAD model
9.2.2 Conversion to STL file
9.2.2.1 Facet orientation rule
9.2.2.2 Adjacency rule or vertex-to-vertex rule
9.2.3 Diagnosis of STL file error
9.2.4 Part orientation
9.2.5 Generation/design of support
9.2.6 Types of support structure
9.2.7 Slicing
9.2.8 Generation of tool path pattern and internal hatching pattern
9.3 Postprocessing in additive manufacturing
9.3.1 Removal of support material
9.3.2 Improvement in surface finish
9.3.3 Improvement in accuracy
9.3.4 Esthetic improvement of additive manufacturing products
9.3.5 Modifying property of additive manufacturing products
9.4 Summary
References
10 Computer vision based online monitoring technique: part quality enhancement in the selective laser melting process
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Experimental methods
10.2.1 Design of experiment
10.2.2 Methods and algorithms of analysis
10.2.2.1 Edge detection and analysis
10.2.2.2 Greyscale pixel value calculation and analysis
10.2.2.3 Clustering classification and analysis
10.3 Results and discussion
10.3.1 Edge detection analysis
10.3.1.1 Layer no. 1 edge detection analysis
10.3.1.2 Layer no. 2 edge detection analysis
10.3.1.3 Layer no. 3 edge detection results
10.3.1.4 Layer no. 4 edge detection results
10.3.1.5 Layer no. 5 edge detection results
10.3.1.6 Layer no. 6 edge detection results
10.3.1.7 Layer no. 7 edge detection results
10.3.1.8 Layer no. 8 edge detection results
10.3.1.9 Layer no. 9 edge detection results
10.3.1.10 Layer no. 10 edge detection results
10.3.2 Greyscale pixel value analysis
10.3.2.1 Greyscale pixel value and standard deviation analysis for the defect portion in layer
10.3.3 Layer classification
10.3.3.1 Layer classification and prediction
10.4 Conclusions
10.5 Future scope and industrial application
References
11 Fundamentals of thermo-fluid-mechanical modeling in additive manufacturing processes
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Fundamentals of thermal phenomena modeling
11.2.1 General classification of heated body models and heat sources models
11.2.2 Steady-state point moving heat source
11.2.3 Transitory shifting point heat source
11.2.4 Semielliptical transient moving heat source
11.2.5 Double elliptical transient moving heat source
11.2.6 Uniform transient moving heat source
11.3 Mathematical description of temperature field
11.3.1 Analytical solutions of the heat conduction equation for point source
11.3.2 Surface and volumetric heat source models
11.3.3 Volumetric heat source models
11.4 Numerical modeling of the thermal field considering solid–liquid changes
11.4.1 Thermal and fluid flow modeling of the molten pool
11.4.1.1 Assumptions
11.4.1.2 Governing equations
11.4.1.2.1 Continuity equation
11.4.1.2.2 Energy conservation equation
11.4.1.2.3 Conservation of momentum equation
11.4.1.3 Initial and boundary conditions
11.5 Quantitative description of phase transformations in solid state
11.5.1 Calculating structural shares during the single thermal cycle
11.5.2 Key parameters in determining the solidification structure
11.5.2.1 Solidification map
11.5.2.2 Undercooling
11.6 Modeling stress and strains during additive manufacturing
11.6.1 Analytical modeling of residual stress in additive manufacturing
11.6.1.1 Thermal stress
11.6.1.2 Residual stress
11.6.1.3 Strain
11.7 Summary
References
III. Materials in AM
12 Materials processed by additive manufacturing techniques
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Materials for AM technology
12.2.1 Polymers
12.2.2 Ceramics
12.2.3 Composites
12.2.4 Metals
12.3 Biomaterials for AM technology
12.3.1 Metallic biomaterials
12.3.2 Ceramic biomaterials
12.3.3 Polymeric biomaterials
12.3.4 Composite biomaterials
12.4 Smart materials and 4D printing perspectives
12.5 Materials processing issues in AM and characterization techniques
12.5.1 Liquid materials processing issues and their characterization techniques
12.5.2 Solid materials processing issues and their characterization techniques
12.5.3 Powder materials processing issues and their characteristic techniques
12.6 Newly developed materials for AM
12.7 Summary
References
13 Ceramic–metal interface: In-situ microstructural characterization aid vacuum brazing additive manufacturing technology
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Wettability
13.3 Wetting versus brazing
13.4 Ceramic–metal interface: Microstructural characterization
13.5 Effect of brazing parameters on the interfacial microstructure evolution
13.6 Ceramic–metal interface: Nanoindentation characterization
13.7 Ceramic–metal interface: Brazing mechanism
13.8 Conclusion
References
14 Processing challenges in additively manufactured single crystal alloys: a process–structure–property relationship approach
14.1 Introduction and background
14.2 Challenges in the deposition of SX structure
14.2.1 Influencing laser processing parameters
14.2.2 Influencing of seeding layer substrate
14.2.3 Influence of thermal gradient
14.3 Suitable pre- and postprocessing strategies
14.3.1 Preprocessing schemes
14.3.1.1 Seed layer surface characteristics
14.3.1.1.1 Preheating of seed layer
14.3.1.1.2 Influence of seed layer’s crystallographic orientation on SX deposits
14.3.2 Influence of postprocessing schemes
14.3.2.1 Influence of heat treatment strategies
14.3.2.1.1 Stress-relieving treatment
14.3.2.1.2 Post–heat treatment for tailoring of microstructure for high-temperature properties
14.4 Case study: remanufacturing of high-valued component
14.5 Conclusions
14.6 Future scope
References
Further reading
15 Transient thermal analysis in friction-stir additive manufacturing of dissimilar wrought aluminum alloys
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and modeling
15.2.1 Thermomechanics of the process
15.3 Finite element modeling
15.3.1 Microstructure and hardness evaluation
15.4 Conclusion
References
16 Processing of biomaterials by additive manufacturing
16.1 Introduction to additive manufacturing and biomaterials
16.1.1 Introduction of additive manufacturing
16.1.2 Additive technology selection
16.1.3 Material selection
16.1.4 Additive manufacturing polymers
16.2 Additive manufacturing technology for biomaterials
16.3 Limitations of additive manufacturing with biomaterials
16.4 Further development of additive manufacturing applications
References
17 Selective laser melting of functionally graded material: current trends and future prospects
17.1 Introduction
17.2 FGMs in nature
17.3 Classification of FGM
17.4 Mathematical representation of FGMs and models for property prediction
17.4.1 Mori–Tanaka scheme
17.4.2 Voigt model
17.4.3 Power law gradation
17.4.4 Exponential law gradation
17.4.5 Sigmoidal law gradation
17.5 Applications of FGMs
17.6 Manufacturing methods for FGMs
17.6.1 Legacy manufacturing methods for FGMs
17.6.2 State of the art of the legacy manufacturing methods for FGMs
17.6.3 Challenges with the legacy manufacturing methods for FGMs
17.7 AM methods for FGMs
17.8 Manufacturing of SS316–AlSi10Mg FGM
17.8.1 The motive
17.8.2 Attempt 1: Building SS316L over AlSi10Mg Base
17.8.3 Attempt 2: Building the AlSi10Mg over SS316L baseplate
17.8.4 Attempt 3: In-house manufacturing of SS316L-IN718 FGM through SLM
17.9 Conclusion
17.10 Future prospects of FGM
References
18 Nondestructive evaluation of additively manufactured parts
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Defects associated with AM parts
18.2.1 Cracking
18.2.2 Porosity
18.2.3 Inclusions
18.2.4 Voids
18.2.5 Lack of fusion
18.2.6 Delaminations
18.2.7 Residual stresses
18.2.8 Keyhole
18.2.9 Increased surface roughness
18.3 Challenges for implementation of NDE in AM
18.3.1 Geometrical complexity of parts
18.3.2 Critical defects
18.3.3 Online monitoring
18.3.4 Inspection procedures
18.4 Applications of NDE in AM
18.5 Technologies involved in NDE for testing and inspection of AM parts
18.5.1 Penetrant testing
18.5.2 Ultrasonic testing
18.5.3 Acoustic emission
18.5.4 Optical methods
18.5.5 Radiographic techniques
18.5.5.1 X-ray CT
18.5.6 Thermographic techniques
18.5.6.1 Induction thermography
18.5.7 Electromagnetic techniques
18.5.7.1 Eddy CT
18.5.7.2 Magnetic particle inspection
18.5.8 Recommendations and future work
18.5.8.1 Knowledge of the porosity–performance relationship and linkage to POD
18.5.8.2 Utilization of the melt pool features into mechanical performance prediction factors
18.5.8.3 Layer-by-layer monitoring of the geometry of AM parts
18.5.8.4 Development of process quality indicators
18.5.8.5 Emphasis on the expansion of noncontact NDE methodologies
18.5.8.6 Development of functional testing NDE procedures
18.6 Conclusion
References
IV. Learnings from nature/inspirations from nature
19 Bio-inspired advancements in additive manufacturing
19.1 Introduction
19.2 History and research methods of bio-inspired structures
19.3 Learning innovative principles from nature
19.4 Bio-inspired structures and materials for additive manufacturing
19.5 Additive manufacturing methods for bio-inspired structures
19.6 Mechanical behavior of additively manufactured bio-inspired structures
19.7 Bio-inspired structures and their applications (science, engineering, and medicine)
19.8 Future direction and conclusion of bio-inspired design
References
20 Path planning and simulation for prototyping bio-inspired complex shapes
20.1 Introduction
20.2 State of the art
20.2.1 Path planning for 3D printing
20.2.2 Robots as three-dimensional printing systems
20.3 Path planning for three-dimensional printing
20.3.1 Geometrical mesh generation and shape optimization
20.3.2 Slicing and geometric reconstruction of the three-dimensional models
20.3.3 Path generation and planning
20.4 Result and discussion
20.5 Conclusion and future outlook
Acknowledgment
References
21 Substitute for orthognathic surgery using bioprinted bone scaffolds in restoring osseous defects
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Role of additive manufacturing in reconstructive surgery
21.1.2 Literature gap
21.1.3 Motivation
21.1.4 Literature review
21.1.5 Objectives
21.2 Bone scaffolds for reconstructive treatments
21.2.1 Bone as a specialized tissue
21.2.2 Congenital and traumatic osseous defects
21.2.3 Biological stimuli responsive materials
21.2.4 Fabrication of bone scaffolds
21.2.5 Fabrication of bioprinted scaffolds using stereo lithographic files
21.3 Orthognathic surgical substitutes
21.3.1 Conventional surgeries and their limitations
21.3.2 Genetically driven treatment: gene therapy
21.3.3 Bioprinted scaffolds for reconstructive procedures
21.3.4 State-of-the-art comparison
21.3.5 Points favoring additive manufacturing and clinical success of bone scaffolds
21.3.5.1 Points favoring additive manufacturing
21.4 Conclusion and future perspectives
21.4.1 Conclusion
21.4.2 Future perspectives
References
22 Multiobjective process parameter optimization in fused filament fabrication with nature-inspired algorithms
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methodologies
22.2.1 Response surface method
22.2.2 Artificial neural network
22.2.3 Genetic algorithm
22.2.4 Nondominated GA II
22.2.5 Particle swarm optimization
22.3 Case study
22.3.1 Data collection
22.3.2 Surrogate models
22.3.3 MPPO formulations
22.3.4 Optimization results
22.3.5 Results discussion
22.4 Discussion and future work
22.5 Conclusions
References
23 4D printing: An experimental case study on processing of shape memory polymer by FDM/FFF for nature inspired structures
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Mechanism of shape memory effect in thermoresponsive shape memory polymer
23.2.1 Properties of shape memory polymers
23.2.2 Shape memory effect in polylactide acid
23.3 Programming/training concepts in 4D printing
23.3.1 Programming/training after printing
23.3.2 Programming/training during printing
23.4 Case study: PLA-SMP for 4D printing by FFF based on different programming concepts and process parameters
23.4.1 Experimental details
23.4.1.1 4D printing of samples considering different parameters
23.4.1.2 Testing the 4D-Printed Parts
23.4.1.2.1 Fold deployable test
23.4.1.2.2 Fold deployable testing setup
23.4.2 Results and discussions
23.4.2.1 Programmed during printing
23.4.2.2 Reprogrammed after printing
23.4.2.3 4D printed prototypes
23.5 Applications of 4D printing technology
23.6 Conclusion
References
V. Applications
24 Selected biomedical applications of additive manufacturing techniques
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Biomedical applications of additive manufacturing
24.2.1 Spinal and orthopedic Implants
24.2.1.1 Overview, functional requirement for applications in implant
24.2.1.1.1 Hip joint replacements
24.2.1.1.2 Knee joint replacements
24.2.1.1.3 Spinal implants
24.2.1.1.4 Trauma implants
24.2.1.2 Suitable additive manufacturing processes and materials
24.2.1.3 Mechanical properties, measurements, and characterization
24.2.1.3.1 Surface roughness
24.2.1.3.2 Permeability and stiffness
24.2.1.4 Dimensional accuracy of 3D-printed porous structures
24.2.2 Dentistry
24.2.2.1 Overview, functional requirements, and applications in dentistry
24.2.2.1.1 Endosseous implants
24.2.2.1.2 Subperiosteal implants
24.2.2.2 Suitable additive manufacturing processes and materials
24.2.3 Bone tissue engineering
24.2.3.1 Overview, functional requirement, and applications in tissue engineering
24.2.3.1.1 Structural requirements
24.2.3.1.2 Biological requirements
24.2.3.2 Suitable additive manufacturing processes and materials
24.2.4 Medical devices: diagnostic and therapeutic tools
24.2.5 Other applications: pharmaceuticals
24.3 Limitations and future potentials (4D and 5D printing)
24.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
25 State-of-the-art in additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V: recent progress and insights into future developments
25.1 Laser powder bed fusion: definition, importance, and industrial relevance
25.2 Titanium alloys for laser powder bed fusion
25.2.1 Titanium and its alloys
25.2.1.1 Pure titanium
25.2.1.2 Titanium alloys
25.2.2 Feedstock material for laser power bed fusion
25.3 Process–structure–property relationships
25.3.1 Processability of Ti–6Al–4V using laser power bed fusion
25.3.2 Metallurgy of laser power bed fusion Ti–6Al–4V
25.3.3 Mechanical performance of laser power bed fusion Ti–6Al–4V
25.4 Design freedom capabilities
25.4.1 Topology optimization
25.4.2 Lattice structures
25.5 Applications of additively manufactured titanium alloys in the biomedical implants industry
25.6 Summary and outlook
Acknowledgments
References
26 Material selection and processing challenges with additive manufacturing in biomimicry for biomedical applications
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Nature-inspired biomedical materials and devices
26.3 Challenges in biomimicry with additive manufacturing for biomedical applications
26.3.1 Hardware limitations
26.3.2 Bio-inspired geometry
26.3.3 Bio-inspired tissue engineering and biofabrication
26.3.3.1 3D printing and 3D bioprinting
26.3.3.1.1 Inkjet
26.3.3.1.2 Laser-assisted
26.3.3.1.3 Extrusion-based
26.3.3.1.4 Stereolithography
26.3.4 Multicriteria decision-making
26.3.4.1 Analytic hierarchy process
26.3.4.2 Material selection and processing challenges with additive manufacturing of artificial bone
26.3.4.3 Proposed methodology for machine selection
26.3.4.4 Proposed methodology for material selection
26.4 Future scope
References
27 Design and optimization of artificial intelligence robot arm printable by a metal-based additive manufacturing process
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Product design and development for additive manufacturing
27.3 Design for additive manufacturing
27.4 Methodology and design for additive manufacturing project design process for robot parts
27.5 Generative design for additive manufacturing robot parts
27.6 Topology optimization for additive manufacturing of robot parts
27.7 Robot arm modeling techniques and simulation processes
27.8 Using additive tools to simulate additive manufacturing
27.9 Experimental optimization based on machine configuration
27.10 Part printing by a metal-based additive manufacturing process
27.10.1 Powder bed fusion
27.10.2 Direct energy deposition
27.11 Case study: using additive manufacturing technology to manufacture robotic parts
27.12 Conclusion
References
28 Additive manufacturing of customized, accessible, and affordable lower limb prosthetics in India: case study
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Demography of lower limb amputees in India
28.1.2 Low-cost prosthetic manufacturers in India
28.1.3 Lower limb prosthetics
28.2 Traditional lower limb prosthetic manufacturing methods in India
28.2.1 Manufacturing process
28.2.2 Case study: Bhagwan Mahaveer Viklang Sahayata Samiti (Jaipur Foot)
28.2.3 Case study: Hardayal Viklang Seva Kendra
28.2.4 Observations in the case studies
28.2.4.1 Manufacturers/manufacturing method
28.2.4.2 Prosthetics
28.2.4.3 Amputees
28.3 Additive manufacturing of prosthetic sockets
28.3.1 Introduction
28.3.2 Manufacturing process
28.3.2.1 Data acquisition
28.3.2.2 Data processing and modeling
28.3.2.3 Additive manufacturing of the socket
28.3.2.4 Testing
28.3.3 Advantages and challenges
28.4 Case study: additively manufactured lower limb prosthetic sockets
28.4.1 3D scanning
28.4.2 Socket modeling
28.4.3 Material characterization
28.4.4 Additive manufacturing
28.4.5 Testing
28.5 Comparison of traditionally and additively manufactured lower limb prosthetics
28.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
29 Current trends of application of additive manufacturing in oral healthcare system
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Additive manufacturing for oral healthcare
29.2.1 Three-dimensional scaffolds and periodontal regeneration
29.2.2 Additive manufacturing for dental educational and training
29.2.3 Additive manufacturing for dental implant design and fabrication
29.2.4 Oral and maxillofacial surgeries and treating traumatic injuries using customized technology
29.2.5 Augmentation of alveolar bone
29.2.6 Prosthetic fabrication
29.3 Challenges in additive manufacturing
29.3.1 Cost-effectiveness
29.3.2 Awareness
29.3.3 Material availability
29.4 Conclusion and future directions
References
Index
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