Advanced Piezoelectric Materials: Science and Technology

Cover
Front Matter
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
The Development of Piezoelectric Materials and the New Perspective
The History of Piezoelectrics
The Dawn of Piezoelectrics
World War I-Underwater Acoustic Devices With Quartz and Rochelle Salt
World War II-Discovery of Barium Titanate
Discovery of PZT
PZT
Clevite Corporation
Murata Manufacturing Company
Ternary System
Lithium Niobate/Tantalate
Relaxor Ferroelectrics-Ceramics and Single Crystals
Polyvinylidene Difluoride
Pb-Free Piezoelectrics
Composites
Composite Effects
Magnetoelectric Composites
Piezoelectric Dampers
Other Piezoelectric-Related Materials
Photostrictive Materials
Monomorphs
Piezoelectric Materials-Present Status
Piezoelectric Figures of Merit
Piezoelectric Strain Constant d
Piezoelectric Voltage Constant g
Electromechanical Coupling Factor k
Mechanical Quality Factor QM
Acoustic Impedance Z
Piezoelectric Resonance20
The Piezoelectric Constitutive Equations
Electromechanical Coupling Factor
Longitudinal Vibration Mode
Overview of Piezoelectric Materials49
Single Crystals
Polycrystalline Materials
Relaxor Ferroelectrics
Polymers
Composites
Thin-Films
Thin Film Preparation Technique
MEMS Application
Constraints in Thin/Thick Films
Piezoelectric Devices-Brief Review of Applications
Pressure Sensors/Accelerometers/Gyroscopes
Piezoelectric Vibrators/Ultrasonic Transducers
Piezoelectric Vibrators
Ultrasonic Transducers
Resonators/Filters
SAW Devices
Micromass Sensor
Biosensor
Viscosity Sensor
Piezoelectric Transformers
Piezoelectric Actuators
Actuator Designs
Drive/Control Techniques
Servo Displacement Transducers
Pulse Drive Motors
Ultrasonic Motors
Classification and Principles of USMs
Standing Wave-Type Motors
Propagating Wave-Type Motors
Smooth Impact Drive Mechanism
Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting
Piezoelectric Passive Damping to Energy Harvesting
High Energy Harvesting (W)
Low-Energy Harvesting (mW)
Future Perspectives of Piezoelectrics
Performance to Reliability
Pb-Free Piezoelectrics
Biodegradable Polymer
Low-Loss Piezoelectrics
Hard to Soft
Elastomer Actuators
Electrostrictive Polymers
1:3 PZT Composites
Large Strain Ceramics
Macro to Nano
Homo to Hetero
Single to Multifunctional
Magnetoelectric Effect
Photostriction
References
Lead Zirconate Titanate-Based Piezoceramics
Introduction
Crystalline Structure and Phase Relations
Compositional Modifications
Effect of the Microstructure on the Piezoelectric Response in PZT Ceramics
Shaping Approach and Application Trend
Low-Temperature Sintering
Summary and Future Trends
References
Further Reading
Relaxor Ferroelectric-Based Ceramics
Introduction
Crystal Structures of Relaxor Ferroelectrics
Dielectric Properties of Relaxor Ferroelectrics
Origin of Giant Permittivity
Diffuse Phase Transition
Dielectric Relaxation
Skanavi-Type Dielectric Relaxation
Micro-Macro Domain Change
Fractal Analysis of Relaxor Ferroelectrics
Critical Exponent in Relaxor Ferroelectrics
Fractal Analysis of the Electric Field-Induced AE
Electrostriction in Relaxor Ferroelectrics
Electro-optic Effect
Summary
References
Bi-Based Lead-Free Piezoelectric Ceramics
Introduction
(Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3 [BNT]-Based Ceramics
(Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3 [BNT]-(Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT]-BaTiO3 [BT] System
(Bi1/2Na1/2)TiO3 [BNT]-(Bi1/2Li1/2)TiO3 [BLT]-(Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT] System
(Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT]-Based Ceramics
(Bi1/2K1/2)TiO3 [BKT]-BaTiO3 [BT] System
BiMeO3-Based Materials
Summary
References
Further Reading
Quartz-Based Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity of Quartz Crystal
Discovery of Piezoelectricity
Symmetry of Quartz Crystal and Its Axis
Differences Among Other Piezoelectric Materials
Production of Artificial Quartz Crystal
The Relationship Between Natural and Artificial Quartz Crystal
Specifications of Artificial Quartz Crystal
Cutting Angles and Their Vibration Mode
Examples of Typical Cutting Angles and Their Vibration Mode and Characteristics
Major Cutting Angles (AT-Cut and +1-X-Cut) and Their Vibration
AT-Cut Thickness Shear Mode Quartz Crystal Vibrator
+1°-X-Cut Tuning Fork Quartz Crystal Vibrator (Cantilever, Tuning Fork)
Other Cutting Angles Developed by River Eletec Corporation
Lame Mode Resonator
Other New Resonators Developed by River Eletec Corporation
GT-Cut Resonator11
Lamb Wave Resonator12
Resonator, Oscillator, and Filter Applications
Mobile Communications
Bluetooth
Wireless LAN
Cellular Phones
One-Segment/Full Segment Tuners
RF Module
IEEE802.15.4 (Zigbee, etc.)
UWB (Ultrawide band)
Secure Private Cosm (SPC) Encryption
Duplexer
IF (Intermediate Frequency) Filter
Monolithic Crystal Filter (MCF)
Camera Module
Automotive Applications
Navigation (GPS)
Car Audio/Video System
Keyless Entry
Laser/Millimeter Wave Radar
Body Control Module
Other Applications
Medical Instruments
Capsule Endoscopes
Blood Sugar Level Sensors
Near-Field Communications
Characteristics of Near-Field Communications
Acknowledgements
References
Nano- and Microdomain Engineering of Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate for Piezoelectric Applications
Introduction
Piezoelectric Properties of Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate
The Advantages of Single-Crystal Ferroelectrics For Piezoelectric Applications
The Influence of the Periodic Domain Structure on Piezoelectric and Acoustic Properties
Nano- and Microdomain Engineering in Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate Crystals
Applications of Domain-Engineered Lithium Niobate and Lithium Tantalate Crystals for Light Frequency Conversion
Generation of Terahertz Radiation in Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate Crystal
Conclusions and Future Trends
References
Further Reading
Single Crystal PZN-PT, PMN-PT, PSN-PT, and PIN-PT-Based Piezoelectric Materials
Introduction
The History of Relaxor Ferroelectrics
PZN-PT Crystal
Growth of PZN-PT
Properties of PZN-PT
PMN-PT Crystal
Phase Diagram and Crystal Growth
Dielectric Properties
Piezoelectric Properties
Solid State Crystal Growth
PSN-PT Crystal
Growth of PSN-PT
Properties of PSN-PT
PIN-PT Crystal
Theoretical Models for Relaxor-Based Crystals
Domain Engineering and Engineered Domain Configurations
Polarization Rotation and Mesophase
Application in Piezoelectric Actuators and Medical Transducers
Application in Piezoelectric Actuators
Application in Medical Transducers
Conclusion and Future Trends
References
Electroactive Polymers as Actuators
Introduction
Historical Review
The Two EAPs Groups
Electronic (Also Known as Field-Activated) EAP
Ferroelectric Polymers
Dielectric Electroactive Polymers
Electrostrictive Graft Elastomers
Ionic EAP
Ionomeric Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMC)
Conductive Polymers
Carbon Nanotubes
Ionic Polymer Gels
Current and Under Consideration Applications
Medical Applications
Lab-on-a-Chip Systems
Tissue Engineering
Biomimetic Robotics
Planetary Applications
The Armwrestling Challenge-As a State-of-the-Art Indicator
Challenges, Trends and Potential Developments
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Piezoelectric Composite Materials
Introduction
Connectivity
Composite Effects
Sum Effects
Combination Effects
Product Effects
PZT:Polymer Composites
Piezoelectric Composite Materials
Principle of PZT:Polymer Composites
Theoretical Models for 0-3 Composites
Advanced PZT:Polymer Composites
Composite Dampers and Energy Harvesters
Piezoelectric Composite Dampers
Piezoelectric Composite Energy Harvesting
Macro Fiber Composites
Cymbal Energy Harvesting
Magnetoelectric Sensors
References
Manufacturing Methods for Piezoelectric Ceramic Materials
Material Designing
Composition Selection
Dopant Effects on Piezoelectricity
Domain Wall Stability
Crystallographic Deficiencies
High-Power Characteristics
Fabrication Processes of Ceramics
Preparation of Ceramic Powders
Solid State Reaction
Coprecipitation
Alkoxide Hydrolysis
Sintering Process
Single Crystal Growth
Quartz, LN, LT
PZN-PT, PMN-PT, PZT
Templated Grain Growth
Device Designing
Single Disks
Multilayers
Unimorphs/Bimorphs
Flextension/Hinge Lever Amplification Mechanisms
Flexible Composites
Thin/Thick Films
Film Manufacturing Techniques
Aerosol Deposition
MEMS Application
Constraints in Thin/Thick Films
Size Effect on Ferroelectricity
Grain Size Effect on Ferroelectricity
3-D Particle Size Effect on Ferroelectricity
References
Multilayer Technologies for Piezoceramic Materials
Introduction
ML Manufacturing Processes
Cut-and-Bond Method
Tape-Casting Method
Textured ML Actuators
Pb-Free Piezoelectrics
Template ML Preparation
Internal Electrode Design
Internal Electrode Configuration
Interdigital-Type Electrode
Plate-Through Internal Electrode
Slit-Insert Design/Interdigital With Float Electrode
Printing Pattern of Electrode
Layer-Thickness Effect
Vertical Crack
Electrode Materials
Actuator Electrodes: An Overview
Pure-Silver ML Actuators
Base-Metal Internal Electrode
Barium Titanate-Based Chip
Cu-Embedded Cofired PZT ML Actuators
ML Actuators With Ceramic Electrodes
Ceramic Electrodes
Barium Titanate-Based ML Actuator
Innovative Ml Structures
Super-Long ML Design
3D Positioning Stage
Reliability/Lifetime of Ml Actuators
Heat Generation in ML Actuators
Lifetime Test
Health Monitoring
References
Single Crystal Preparation Techniques for Manufacturing Piezoelectric Materials
Introduction
Flux Growth of PZN-PT Single Crystals (i.e., Relaxor-PT Crystals of Low PT Contents)
Flux Growth of PMN-PT Single Crystals (i.e., Relaxor-PT Crystals of High PT Contents)
Other Commonly Encountered Phenomena
Multiple Nucleation and Satellite Crystals
Parasitic Crystals
Side-Wall Nucleation
Pyrochlore Crystals
Flux Inclusions/Trappings
Cracks
Pt Inclusions
Compositional Segregation
PT-Rich Surface Layer and Fragile Domain Walls
Conclusions
References
Thin Film Technologies for Manufacturing Piezoelectric Materials
Introduction: Bulk and Thin Film Materials
Fundamentals of Thin Film Deposition
Classification of Deposition Process
Key Deposition Conditions of PZT-Based Thin Films
Control of Chemical Compositions
Control of Crystal Phase
Control of Microstructure
Film Characterizations
Film Structure
Piezoelectric Properties
Deposition of PZT-Based Thin Films
Sputtering
MOCVD/Sol-Gel Processes
Dielectric and Piezoelectric Properties of PZT-Based Thin Films
Sol-Gel/MOCVD
Sputtered PZT Thin Films
PZT-Based Thin Films for Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS)
PMNT Thin Films
PMnN-PZT Thin Films
PZT-Based Thin Film Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS)
PZT-Based Thin Film Piezoelectric Actuators
Some Examples of the PZT-Based Piezoelectric Thin Film MEMS and Related Devices
Gyro-Sensors
Inkjet Printers
FBAR
Conclusions
References
Piezoelectric MEMS Technologies
Introduction
MEMS Applications
MEMS Fabrication
Peculiarities of Piezoelectric MEMS Technologies
Lead Zirconate Titanate Films for MEMS
Piezoelectric MEMS for Semiconductor Testing
How to Test the Piezoelectric Films?
New Broad Benefit of Piezoelectric MEMS
Conclusions
References
Aerosol Deposition (AD) and Its Applications for Piezoelectric Devices
Introduction
Aerosol Deposition and Granule Spray in Vacuum (GSV) Process
Deposition Mechanism
Consolidation of Ceramic Powders at Room Temperature21
Impact Particle Velocity and Local Temperature Increase During AD Process
Densification Mechanism of Ceramic Films in the AD Process21
Fabrication of Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Thick Films by AD
Thick Film Fabrication
Thick Film Fine Patterning
Electrical Properties of Piezoelectric Thick Films by AD
High Breakdown Voltage of AD Thick Films
Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Properties of AD Thick Films
Property Enhancement by Stress Modulation
Laser Annealing for AD Films
Lead-Free Piezoelectric Thick Films by AD
Device Applications
Piezoelectric Films for Bending Mode Microactuator81
Si-MEMS Optical Microscanner84
Metal-Based Optical Microscanner89
Optical Modulator91
Ultrasonic Motor
Flexible Energy Harvester26
Summary
References
Manufacturing Technologies for Piezoelectric Transducers
Introduction
Transducer Materials
Transducer Designs
Pulse Drive Actuator
Langevin Transducer
Cymbal Transducer
Single Cymbal
Cymbal Array
Double PZT Layer Cymbal
Acoustic Lens and Horn
Acoustic Lens
Acoustic Horn
Acoustic Impedance Matching
Sonochemistry
Piezoelectric Transformers
Rosen-Type Transformer
Step-Down Transformer
References
High-Power Piezoelectrics and Loss Mechanisms
Introduction
Phenomenological Approach to Losses in Piezoelectrics
Piezoelectric Constitutive Equations
Intensive Losses
Extensive Losses
Resonance and Antiresonance
Dynamic Equations for the k31 Mode21
Admittance/Impedance Calculation for the k31 Mode
Strain Distribution on the k31 Plate
Resonance/Antiresonance Modes22
Dynamic Equations for the k33 Mode21
Boundary Condition: E-Constant vs. D-Constant
Loss and Mechanical Quality Factor in k31 Mode21
Loss and Mechanical Quality Factor in Other Modes
Equivalent Circuit With Losses
Equivalency Between Mechanical and Electrical Systems
Equivalent Circuit (Loss-Free) of the k31 Mode
Equivalent Circuit (With Losses) of the k31 Mode
Equivalent Circuit in IEEE Standard
Equivalent Circuit With Three Losses
4-Terminal Equivalent Circuit (EC)
Equivalent Circuit of the k33 Mode
Heat Generation in Piezoelectrics
Heat Generation at Off-Resonance
Thermal Analysis
Heat Generation Under Resonance Conditions
High-Power Piezoelectric Characterization System (HiPoCS)
Loss Measuring Technique I-Pseudostatic Method
Loss Measuring Technique II-Admittance/Impedance Spectrum Method
Resonance Under Constant Voltage Drive
Resonance Under Constant Current Drive
Resonance/Antiresonace Under Constant Vibration Velocity
Real Electric Power Method
Determination Methods of the Mechanical Quality Factor
Loss Measuring Technique III-Transient/Burst Drive Method
Pulse Drive Method
Burst Mode Method
Loss Measuring Technique-Sample Electrode Configuration
Drive Schemes of Piezoelectric Transducers
Off-Resonance (Pseudo-DC) Drive
Resonance Drive
Inductive Actuator Drive
Loss Mechanisms in Piezoelectrics
Microscopic Origins of Extensive Losses
Loss Anisotropy-Crystal Orientation Dependence of Losses
Loss Anisotropy in PZT
PMN-PT Single Crystal
Composition Dependence of Piezoelectric Losses
PZT-Based Ceramics
Pb-Free Piezoelectrics
Doping Effect on Piezoelectric Losses
Hard and Soft PZTs
Dipole Random Alignment
Unidirectionally Fixed Dipole Alignment
Unidirectionally Reversible Dipole Alignment
Grain Size Effect on Hysteresis and Losses
Extended Rayleigh Law Approach
Conventional Rayleigh Law
Application of Hyperbolic Rayleigh Law
DC Bias Field Effect on High-Power Characteristics
High-Power Piezoelectrics for Practical Applications
Low Temperature Sinterable ``Hard´´ PZT
High-Power Piezoelectric Transformers
Summary and Conclusions
References
Photostrictive Actuators Based on Piezoelectrics
Introduction
Prologue to the Discovery
Background of Photostriction
Photovoltaic Effect
Experimental Phenomena of the Bulk Photovoltatic Effect
Bulk Photovoltaic Effect
Experimental Setup
Physical Models for the Bulk Photovoltaic Effect
Current Source Model
Voltage Source Model
Effect of Light Polarization Direction
PLZT Composition Research
Dopant Research
Photostrictive Effect
Figures of Merit
Materials Considerations
Ceramic Preparation Method Effect
Processing Method
Grain Size Effect
Surface/Geometry Dependence
Photostrictive Device Applications
Displacement Amplification Mechanism
Photo-Driven Relay
Micro Walking Machine
Photophone
Micro Propelling Robot
Conclusions
References
The Performance of Piezoelectric Materials Under Stress
Introduction
The Unit Cell and Ferroelectricity
Driving Forces for Polarization Reorientation
Domains Under Stress
Observation of Effects of Stress
Conclusions and Future Trends
References
Index