Advanced Materials: An Introduction to Modern Materials Science

About the Book
Contents
About the Author
Chapter 1: Shape-Memory Materials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Shape Memory Alloy
1.2.1 Historical Background of SMAs
1.2.2 Fabrication Processes of SMAs
1.2.2.1 Vacuum Melting
1.2.2.2 Powder Metallurgy
1.2.2.3 Additive Manufacturing
1.2.2.4 Thermal Spray
1.2.2.5 Plasma Melting
1.2.2.6 Magnetron Sputtering Deposition
1.2.2.7 Post Fabrication Process
1.2.3 Shape Memory Effect
1.2.4 Superelasticity or Pseudoelasticity
1.2.5 Phase Transformation Phenomenon in SMA
1.2.6 Martensite Reorientation
1.2.7 Crystallography of Phases
1.2.8 Thermodynamics of Phase Transformation
1.2.9 Training and Stability of SMA
1.2.10 Heating Methods of Temperature-Induced SMA
1.2.11 Types of Shape Memory Alloys
1.2.11.1 One-Way Shape Memory Alloy
1.2.11.2 Two-Way Shape Memory
1.2.12 Different Parameters of NiTi SMA
1.2.12.1 Effect of Thermomechanical Treatment
1.2.12.2 Effects of Aging
1.2.12.3 Effect of Grain Size
1.2.12.4 Effect of Deviation from Equiatomic Stoichiometry
1.2.12.5 Effect of Additive Elements
1.2.12.6 Effect of Precipitation
1.2.13 Potential Applications
1.2.13.1 In Space and Aero-Industries
1.2.13.2 In Automobile Industries
1.2.13.3 In Electrical and Electronics
1.2.13.4 In Biomedical Industries
1.2.13.5 Other Industries
1.2.14 Advantages of Shape Memory Alloy
1.3 Shape Memory Polymer
1.3.1 Thermo-Stimulated SMP
1.3.2 Electric-Stimulated SMP
1.3.3 Light-Stimulated SMP
1.3.4 Magnetically Stimulated SMP
1.3.5 Humid-Stimulated SMP
1.3.6 Shape Memory Effect of SMP
1.3.7 Basics of Reinforcement in SMP
1.3.8 Fabrication and Shaping Techniques of SMP
1.3.9 Application of SMPs
1.3.9.1 Medical Applications
1.3.9.2 In Aerospace
1.3.9.3 In Textile Industries
1.3.9.4 Automobile
1.3.9.5 Electric, Electronics, and Robotics
1.3.9.6 Other Industrial Applications
1.3.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of SMP
1.4 Shape Memory Ceramic
1.4.1 Various Shape-Memory Ceramics
1.4.1.1 Zirconia-Based SMC
1.4.1.2 Lanthanum-Niobium oxide SMC
1.4.1.3 Advantage and Disadvantage of SMCs
1.5 Shape Memory Hybrids
1.5.1 Basic Mechanism Behind SHM
1.5.2 Responses in SMH
1.6 Summary
References
Chapter 2: Piezoelectric Materials
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History of Piezoelectric
2.3 Piezoelectric Effect
2.3.1 Direct Piezoelectric Effect
2.3.2 Inverse Piezoelectric Effect
2.4 Mechanism and Working of Piezoelectric Effect
2.5 Various Piezoelectric Constants
2.6 Piezoelectric Charge Constant
2.7 Piezoelectric Voltage Constant
2.8 Permittivity Constant
2.9 Elastic and Compliance
2.9.1 Electromechanical Coupling Factor
2.9.2 Young´s Modulus
2.9.3 Dielectric Dissipation Factor
2.9.4 Piezoelectric Frequency Constant
2.10 Materials Used for Piezoelectricity
2.10.1 Ceramics Piezoelectric Materials
2.10.2 Polymer Piezoelectric Materials
2.10.3 Composite Piezoelectric Materials
2.10.4 Single Crystal Piezoelectric
2.10.5 Thin Films Piezoelectric Materials
2.10.6 Piezoelectric Material Properties
2.10.7 Electric Behavior
2.10.8 Dielectric Behavior
2.10.9 Elasticity Behavior
2.10.10 Electromechanical Behavior
2.10.11 Coupling Coefficient
2.10.12 Material Damping
2.10.13 Mechanical Loss
2.10.14 Sound Velocity
2.10.15 Acoustic Impedance
2.10.16 Two-port Description
2.11 Piezoelectric Material Parameter
2.11.1 Temperature
2.11.2 Accuracy/Linearity
2.11.3 Resolution
2.11.4 Stiffness
2.11.5 Resonant Frequency
2.11.6 Mechanical Amplification
2.11.7 Quality Factor
2.11.8 Bandwidth
2.11.9 Frequency Constant
2.11.10 Humidity
2.11.11 Load Ratings
2.11.12 Vacuum
2.12 Manufacturing of Piezoelectric Components
2.12.1 Bulk Ceramics: Disks, Rings, Plates
2.12.2 Benders: Unimorphs and Bimorphs-Actuators and Sensors
2.12.3 Multilayer Actuators
2.12.4 Thin Films for Piezo-MEMS
2.13 Difference Between Piezoelectric and Electrostrictive Materials
2.14 Applications of Piezoelectric Devices
2.14.1 Aero Industries
2.14.2 Marine Industries
2.14.3 Automobiles
2.14.4 Electrical and Electronics
2.14.5 Biomedical
2.14.6 Energy Harvest
2.14.7 Household and Other Application
2.15 Advantages of Piezoelectric Materials
2.16 Limitations of Piezoelectric Materials
2.17 Summary and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 3: Nanomaterials
3.1 Introduction to Nanoscale World
3.2 History of Nanotechnology
3.3 Can We Make Small Devices?
3.4 Size Effects
3.5 Properties of Nanomaterials
3.5.1 Structure Properties
3.5.2 Thermal Properties
3.5.3 Mechanical Properties
3.5.4 Chemical Properties
3.5.5 Optical Properties
3.5.6 Electrical Properties
3.5.7 Magnetic Properties
3.6 Classification of Nanomaterials
3.6.1 Classification on the Basis of Dimension
3.6.1.1 Zero-Dimension (0-D)
3.6.1.2 One-Dimensional (1D)
3.6.1.3 Two-Dimensional (2D)
3.6.1.4 Three-Dimensional (3D)
3.7 Synthesis of Nanomaterials
3.7.1 Gas-Phase Processes
3.7.2 Liquid-Phase Processes
3.7.3 Solid-Phase Processes
3.8 Classification Based on Composition
3.8.1 Carbon-Based Materials
3.8.1.1 Graphene
3.8.1.2 Fullerene
3.8.1.2.1 Structure of Fullerene
3.8.1.2.2 Synthesis of Fullerene
3.8.1.2.3 Properties of Fullerene
3.8.1.2.4 Applications
3.8.1.3 Carbon Nanotube
3.8.1.3.1 Synthesis of CNT
3.8.1.3.2 Classification of CNT
3.8.1.3.3 Properties of CNT
3.8.1.3.4 Application of CNTs
3.8.1.4 Other Forms of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
3.8.1.5 Metal-Based Nanomaterials
3.8.1.5.1 Synthesis of Some Metal-Based Nanomaterials
3.8.1.6 Polymer-Based Nanomaterials
3.8.1.6.1 Synthesis of Dendrimer
3.8.1.6.2 Applications
3.8.1.6.3 Nanocomposites
3.8.1.6.4 Metal Matrix Nanocomposites (MMNC)
3.8.1.6.5 Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites (CMNC)
3.8.1.6.6 Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites (PMNC)
3.8.1.6.7 Synthesis of Nanocomposite
3.8.1.6.8 Application of Nanocomposite
3.8.1.7 Nanoporous Materials
3.8.1.7.1 Synthesis of Porous Materials
3.8.1.7.2 Applications of Nanoporous Materials
3.9 Emerging Application of Nanomaterials
3.9.1 Aero Industries
3.9.2 Automotive and Naval Industry
3.9.3 Electronic Industry
3.9.4 Medical Industries
3.9.5 Energy Harvest Industries
3.9.6 Food Industries
3.9.7 Textile Industries
3.9.8 Household Application
3.9.9 Others
3.10 Current Problems/Difficulties Associated With Nanomaterials
3.11 Opportunities and Challenges
References
Chapter 4: Magnetostrictive Materials
4.1 Magnetostrictive Materials
4.2 History of Magnetostrictive Materials
4.3 Mechanism of Magnetostrictive Effect
4.4 Magnetostrictive Sensors Construction and Working
4.5 Electromagnetic Properties
4.5.1 Permittivity
4.5.2 Permeability
4.5.3 Magnetic Materials
4.5.4 Diamagnetic Material
4.5.5 Paramagnetic Material
4.5.6 Ferromagnetic Material
4.5.7 Antiferromagnetic Material and Ferrimagnetic Material
4.5.8 Curie Temperature
4.5.9 Generation of Magnetic Fields
4.5.10 Hysteresis
4.5.11 Inductance
4.6 Magnetostrictive Effects
4.6.1 Joul Effect
4.6.2 Villari Effect
4.6.3 ΔE Effect
4.6.4 Wiedemann Effect
4.6.5 Matteucci Effect
4.6.6 Barret Effect
4.6.7 Nagaoka-Honda Effect
4.7 Materials for Magnetostrictive Effects
4.7.1 Iron-Based Alloys
4.7.2 Ni-based Alloys
4.7.3 Terfenol-D
4.7.4 Metglas
4.7.5 Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloys
4.7.6 Other Materials
4.8 Material Behavior
4.8.1 Magnetic Anisotropy
4.8.2 Mechanical Behaviors
4.9 Kinetics in Magnetostrictive Operation
4.10 Potential Applications
4.10.1 Magnetostriction in Mechanical Industries
4.10.2 Magnetostriction in Aero-Industries
4.10.3 Magnetostriction in Automotive Industries
4.10.4 Magnetostriction in Biomedical Industries
4.10.5 Magnetostriction in Construction Industries
4.10.6 Magnetostriction in Energy Harvesting Materials
4.10.7 Magnetostrictive Materials in Other Industries
4.11 Advantages/Disadvantages of MS Materials
4.12 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Chromogenic Materials
5.1 Introduction
5.2 History of Chomogenic Materials
5.3 Concept of Chromogenic Materials
5.4 Classification of Chromogenic Materials
5.5 Photochromic Materials
5.5.1 Mechanism of Photochromic Materials
5.5.2 Materials Used in Photochromic Materials
5.5.3 Limitations of Photochromic Glasses
5.5.4 Applications of Photochromic Materials
5.6 Thermochromic and Thermotropic Materials
5.6.1 Mechanism in Thermochromic Materials
5.6.2 Materials used in Thermochromic Materials
5.6.3 Advantages and Limitations of Thermochromic Materials
5.6.4 Applications
5.7 Electrochromic Materials
5.7.1 Mechanism of Electrochromic Materials
5.7.2 Materials Used
5.7.3 Applications
5.8 Gasochromic Materials
5.8.1 Mechanism of Gasochromic Materials
5.8.2 Applications of Gasochromic Materials
5.9 Mechanochromic/Piezochromicmaterials
5.9.1 Mechanism of Mechanochromism in Materials
5.9.2 Materials Used
5.9.3 Applications
5.10 Chemochromic Materials
5.10.1 Applications
5.10.2 Limitations
5.11 Biochromic Materials
5.11.1 Application
5.12 Magnetochromic Materials
5.12.1 Applications
5.13 Phosphorescent Materials
5.14 Ionochromic
5.15 Vapochromism
5.16 Radiochromism
5.17 Sorptiochromism
5.18 Aggregachromism
5.19 Chronochromism
5.20 Concentratochromism
5.21 Cryochromism
5.22 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Smart Fluid
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Electro-Rheological fluid
6.2.1 Materials Used in ER Fluid
6.2.2 Preparation of ER Fluids
6.2.3 Strengthening Mechanisms of Smart Fluid
6.2.4 Giant ER
6.2.5 Microstructure and Properties
6.2.6 Modes of ER Fluid
6.2.7 Applications
6.2.7.1 Automobile Application
6.2.7.2 Electronic Industries
6.2.7.3 Other Applications
6.2.8 Advantages/Disadvantages
6.3 Magneto-Rheological Fluid
6.3.1 Materials Used in MR fluid
6.3.2 Preparation of MR fluid
6.3.3 Mechanism of Strengthening of MR Fluid
6.3.4 Microstructure and Properties of MR Fluid
6.3.5 Typical Modes of Application of MR Fluid
6.3.6 Applications
6.3.6.1 Automobile and Heavy Machinery Industries
6.3.6.2 Military and Defense Industries
6.3.6.3 Biomedical Industries
6.3.6.4 Other Industries
6.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of MR Fluid
6.4 Ferrofluid
6.4.1 Mechanism
6.4.2 Preparation of Ferrofluid
6.4.3 Applications
6.4.3.1 Aero-Industries
6.4.3.2 Electronics Engineering
6.4.3.3 Medical Applications
6.4.3.4 Other Industries
6.5 Magneto-rheological Elastomers
6.5.1 Materials Used
6.5.2 Preparation of MRE
6.5.3 Application
6.6 Electro-Conjugate Liquids
6.6.1 Application
6.7 Photo-Rheological Fluid
6.7.1 PR Fluid Preparation
6.7.2 Applications
6.8 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Superalloys
7.1 Superalloy
7.2 History of Superalloys
7.3 Basic Metallurgy of Superalloys
7.4 Strengthening Mechanisms of Superalloys
7.4.1 Solid Solution Strengthening
7.4.2 Precipitation Strengthening
7.4.3 Oxide Dispersion Strengthening
7.4.4 Grain Boundary Strengthening
7.4.5 Antiphase Boundary Strengthening
7.5 Types of Superalloys
7.5.1 Ni-based Superalloys
7.5.1.1 Phases of Ni-based Superalloys
7.5.1.2 Properties of Ni-based Superalloys
7.5.2 Co-based Superalloys
7.5.2.1 Phases of Co-based Superalloys
7.5.3 Fe-based Superalloys
7.5.3.1 Phases of Fe-based Superalloys
7.6 Single-crystal Superalloys
7.7 Processing of Superalloys
7.7.1 Casting and Forging
7.7.2 Powder Metallurgy Process
7.7.3 Additive Manufacturing
7.7.4 Directional Solidification Process
7.7.5 Single Crystal Growth
7.7.6 Post-fabrication Processing
7.8 Problem Persist on Prepared Superalloy
7.8.1 Oxidation Effects
7.8.2 Hot Corrosion Effects
7.9 Coating for Superalloy
7.9.1 Thermal Barrier Coatings
7.9.2 Pack Cementation Process
7.9.3 Bond Coats
7.9.3.1 Auminides Bond Coats
7.9.3.2 Pt-Aluminides Bond Coats
7.9.3.3 MCrAlY Bond Coats
7.10 Applications of Superalloys
7.10.1 Gas Turbine Engines
7.10.2 Turbine Blades
7.10.3 Turbine Discs
7.10.4 Turbine Nozzle Guide Vanes
7.10.5 Turbochargers
7.10.6 Combustion Cans
7.10.7 Steam Turbines and Nuclear Application
7.10.8 Aero and Land Turbines
7.10.9 Oil and Gas Industry
7.10.10 Engine of Y2K Superbike
7.10.11 Pressurized Water Reactor Vessel Head
7.10.12 Reactor Vessel
7.10.13 Tube Exchanger
7.10.14 Ti-Tubed Salt Evaporator for Table Salt
7.10.15 Casting Shell
7.11 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Bulk Metallic Glass
8.1 Introduction on BMG
8.2 History on BMG
8.3 Mechanism of BMG Formation
8.4 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Aspects of Glass Formation in Metallic Liquids
8.5 Empirical Rules
8.6 BMG Structure
8.7 Dynamics of BMG Structure Formation
8.8 Plasticity or Brittleness
8.9 Classification of BMG
8.9.1 Metal-Metal-Type Alloys
8.9.2 Metal-Metalloid-Type Alloys
8.9.3 Pd-Metalloid-Type Alloys
8.10 Processing of Metallic Glasses
8.10.1 Liquid State Processes
8.10.1.1 Direct Casting
8.10.1.2 Rapid Solidification Processing
8.10.1.3 Arc Melting and Drop/Suction Casting
8.10.1.4 Centrifugal Casting Method
8.10.1.5 Thermoplastic Forming
8.10.1.6 Extrusion
8.10.1.7 Rolling
8.10.1.8 Blow Molding
8.10.2 Vapor Deposition Process
8.10.2.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
8.10.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
8.10.3 Solid-State Processes
8.10.3.1 Mechanical Alloying
8.10.3.2 Additive Manufacturing
8.10.3.3 Spark Plasma Sintering
8.10.3.4 Lithography Technique
8.11 Fundamental Characteristics of BMG Alloys
8.11.1 Mechanical Properties
8.11.2 Tribological Properties
8.11.3 Magnetic Properties
8.11.4 Chemical Properties
8.11.5 Electrical Property
8.12 Forming and Jointing of BMG
8.13 Metallic Glass Foam
8.14 Metallic Glass Coatings
8.15 Application
8.15.1 Aerospace Industries
8.15.2 Automobiles Industries
8.15.3 Electrical and Electronic Industries
8.15.4 Biomedical Industries
8.15.5 Other Applications
8.16 Summary
References
Chapter 9: High Entropy Materials
9.1 Introduction
9.2 High Entropy Alloys
9.3 Historical Development of High Entropy Alloy
9.4 The Key Concept of Multicomponent HEA
9.5 Thermodynamics of Solid Solution in HEA
9.6 Core Effects of HEA
9.6.1 The High Entropy Effect
9.6.2 The Lattice Distortion Effect
9.6.3 The Sluggish Diffusion Effect
9.6.4 The `Cocktail´ Effect
9.7 Transformations in HEA
9.8 Phase Selection Approach in HEA
9.9 Fabrication Routes of HEA
9.9.1 HEA Preparation by Liquid-State Route
9.9.2 HEA Preparation by Solid-State Route
9.9.3 HEA Preparation by Gas-State Route
9.9.4 HEA Preparation by Electrochemical Process
9.9.5 Additive Manufacturing Process
9.10 Strengthening Mechanisms
9.10.1 Strain Hardening
9.10.2 Grain-Boundary Hardening
9.10.3 Solid-Solution Hardening
9.10.4 Precipitation Hardening
9.11 High-Entropy Superalloys (HESA)
9.12 High-Entropy Bulk Metallic Glasses
9.13 Light Materials HEAs
9.14 High-Entropy Flexible Materials
9.15 High-Entropy Coatings
9.16 Typical Properties of HEA
9.16.1 Strength and Hardness
9.16.2 Wear Resistance
9.16.3 Fatigue
9.16.4 Chemical Properties
9.16.5 Electrical Properties
9.16.6 Thermal Properties
9.16.7 Magnetic Properties
9.16.8 Hydrogen Storage Properties
9.16.9 Irradiation Properties
9.16.10 Diffusion Barrier Properties
9.17 Difference between BMG and HEA
9.18 Complex Concentrated Alloys (CCAs), Multi-Principal Element Alloys (MPEAs)
9.19 Application of HEA
9.19.1 Automobile Industries
9.19.2 Aero-Vehicle Industries
9.19.3 Machineries
9.19.4 Nuclear Application
9.19.5 Electrical and Electronics
9.19.6 Biomedical Applications
9.19.7 Other Applications
9.20 High Entropy Ceramics
9.21 High Entropy Polymer
9.22 High Entropy Hybrid
9.23 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Self-Healing Materials
10.1 Introduction and Overview
10.2 History of Self-Healing Materials
10.3 Types of Self-Healing Processes
10.4 Autonomic Self-Repair Materials
10.5 Non-autonomic Self-Repair Materials
10.6 Materials for Self-Healing Purposes
10.6.1 Self-Healing in Metals
10.6.1.1 Precipitation From Supersaturated Solid Solutions
10.6.1.2 Reinforcement of Metallic Matrices With Shape Memory Alloy Wires
10.6.1.3 Reinforcement of Metallic Matrices with Low Melting Temperature Alloy
10.6.2 Classification of Self-Healing Metals
10.6.3 Proposed Self-Healing Concepts in Metals
10.6.3.1 High-T Precipitation
10.6.3.2 Low-T Precipitation
10.6.3.3 Nano SMA Dispersoids
10.6.3.4 SMA-Clamp and Melt
10.6.3.5 Solder Tubes/Capsules
10.6.3.6 Coating Agent
10.6.3.7 Electro-Healing
10.7 Self-Healing Ceramics
10.8 Self-Healing Polymers
10.8.1 Mechanically Triggered Self-Healing
10.8.2 Ballistic Impact Self-Healing
10.8.3 Thermally Triggered Self-Healing
10.8.4 Optically Triggered Healing
10.8.5 Other Methods for Triggering Healing
10.8.6 Stages of Passive Self-Healing in Polymer
10.8.7 Damage and Healing Theories
10.8.7.1 Percolation Theory of Damage and Healing
10.8.7.2 Fracture and Healing by Bond Rupture and Repair
10.8.7.3 Fracture and Healing of an Ideal Rubber
10.8.7.4 Fracture and Healing of Thermosets
10.8.8 Healing of Polymer-Polymer Interfaces
10.8.9 Fatigue Healing
10.8.10 The Hard-to-Soft Matter Transition
10.8.10.1 Twinkling Fractal Theory of Tg
10.8.10.2 Healing below the Glass Transition Temperature
10.8.10.3 Twinkling Fractal Theory of Yield Stress
10.8.11 Fracture Mechanics of Polymeric Materials
10.8.12 Self-Healing of Thermoplastic Materials
10.8.12.1 Healing by Molecular Interdiffusion Approach
10.8.12.2 Healing by Recombination of Chain-Ends Approach
10.8.12.3 Self-Healing Via Reversible Bond Formation
10.8.12.4 Healing by Photo-Induced Approach
10.8.12.5 Living Polymer Approach
10.8.12.6 Self-Healing by Nanoparticles Approach
10.8.13 Self-Healing of Thermoset Materials
10.8.13.1 Hollow Glass Fiber Systems
10.8.13.2 Based on Microencapsulated Healing System
10.8.13.3 Based on Fatigue Cracks Retardation Self-Healing System
10.8.13.4 Three-Dimensional Microchannel Structure Self-Healing Systems
10.8.13.5 Inclusion of Thermoplastic Additives System
10.8.13.6 Thermally Reversible Cross-Linked Approach
10.8.13.7 Chain Rearrangement Approach
10.8.13.8 Metal-Ion-Mediated Healing Approach
10.8.13.9 Other Approaches of Thermoset Self-Healing Approach
10.9 Self-Healing Coatings
10.10 Self-Healing Hydrogels
10.11 Applications
10.12 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Self-Cleaning Materials
11.1 What Is Self-Cleaning Property of Materials?
11.2 History of Self-Cleaning Materials
11.3 Classification of Self-Cleaning Materials
11.4 Surface Characteristics of Self-Cleaning Materials
11.4.1 Wettability
11.4.1.1 Young´s Model of Wetting
11.4.1.2 Wenzel´s Model of Wetting
11.4.1.3 Cassie-Baxter´s Model of Wetting
11.4.1.4 Transition between Cassie and Wenzel States
11.4.2 Drag Reduction
11.4.3 Surface Tension and Surface Energy
11.4.4 Surface Roughness and Air Pockets
11.5 Act of Self-Cleaning Surfaces
11.6 Hydrophobic and Superhydrophobic Surfaces
11.6.1 History of Hydrophobic Materials
11.6.1.1 Direction of Hydrophobicity From Nature
11.6.2 Type of Superhydrophobic Surface in Plant Leaves
11.7 Hydrophilic and Superhydrophilic Self-Cleaning Surfaces
11.8 Photocatalysis Self-Cleaning Materials
11.9 Materials Used for Synthesis of Superhydrophobic Surfaces
11.10 Synthesis of Self-Cleaning Surfaces
11.10.1 Microlithography and Nanolithography
11.10.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition
11.10.3 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
11.10.4 Electrochemical Deposition
11.10.5 Electrospinning Method
11.10.6 Wet Chemical Reaction
11.10.7 Templating
11.10.8 Solution Immersion Process
11.10.9 Self-Assembly and Layer-by-Layer Methods
11.10.10 Plasma Treatment
11.10.11 Sol-Gel Method
11.10.12 Flame Treatment
11.10.13 Nanocasting
11.10.14 3D Printing
11.10.15 Fabrication of Hydrophilic Materials
11.10.16 Deposited Molecular Structures
11.10.17 Modification of Surface Chemistry
11.11 Properties of Superhydrophobic Materials
11.12 Other Terminology with Phobic and Philic
11.13 Applications of Self-Cleaning Materials
11.13.1 Aero-Industries
11.13.2 Maritime Industry
11.13.3 Automobile Industries
11.13.4 Electronic Industries
11.13.5 Medical Industries
11.13.6 Textile Industries
11.13.7 Other Industries
11.14 Limitations of Self-Cleaning Materials
11.15 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Ultralight Materials
12.1 Introduction of Ultralight Materials
12.2 Aerogel
12.2.1 Classification of Aerogel
12.2.2 Fabrication of Aerogel
12.2.2.1 Sol-gel Process
12.2.2.2 3D Printing
12.2.2.3 Properties of Aerogel
12.2.2.4 Applications of Aerogel
12.3 Aerographite
12.3.1 Synthesis of Aerographite
12.3.2 Properties of Aerographite
12.3.3 Applications of Aerographite
12.4 Aerographene
12.4.1 Synthesis
12.4.2 Properties
12.4.3 Applications
12.5 3D Graphene
12.5.1 Synthesis of 3D graphene
12.5.2 Template-Assisted Processes
12.5.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
12.5.2.2 Carbonization of Polymeric Structure
12.5.2.3 Lithography
12.5.2.4 Template-assisted Freeze-Drying
12.5.2.5 Template-assisted Hydrothermal Process
12.5.2.6 Powder Metallurgy Synthesis
12.5.3 Template-Free Processes
12.5.3.1 Sugar Blowing Technique
12.5.3.2 Plasma-enhanced CVD (PE-CVD)
12.5.3.3 Assembly of GO by Reduction Process
12.5.3.4 Freeze-Drying
12.5.3.5 Cross-linking Assembly
12.5.3.6 3D Printing
12.5.4 Factors Influencing the Synthesis
12.5.5 Properties of 3D Graphene
12.5.6 Application
12.6 Carbyne
12.6.1 History of Development
12.6.2 Synthesis of Carbyne
12.6.2.1 Polycondensation of Carbon Suboxide with Bis(Bromomagnesium) Acetylide
12.6.2.2 Dehydrohalogenation of Polymers
12.6.2.3 Dehydrogenation of Polyacetylene
12.6.2.4 Synthesis of Carbyne in Plasma
12.6.2.5 Laser-induced Sublimation of Carbon
12.6.2.6 Deposition of Carbyne from an Electric Arc
12.6.2.7 Ion-assisted Condensation of Carbyne
12.6.3 Properties
12.6.4 Applications of Carbyne
12.7 Microlattice Materials
12.7.1 Metallic Microlattice
12.7.1.1 Manufacturing of Metallic Lattice Structure
12.7.1.2 Properties
12.7.1.3 Applications of Metallic Microlattice
12.7.2 Polymer Microlattice
12.7.2.1 Applications of Polymer Microlattice
12.7.3 Ceramic MicroLattice
12.7.4 Composite Microlattice
12.8 Foams
12.8.1 Metallic Foams
12.8.1.1 Classification of Metallic Foam
12.8.1.2 Synthesis of Metallic Foam
12.8.1.2.1 Powder Metallurgy (P/M) Rout
12.8.1.2.2 Liquid Metallurgy Route
12.8.1.3 Foaming by Rapid Prototyping Technique
12.8.1.4 Electro-Deposition Technique
12.8.1.5 Vapor Deposition Technique
12.8.1.6 Based on Polymer Sponge Structure
12.8.1.7 Properties
12.8.1.8 Application
12.8.2 Ceramic Foam
12.8.2.1 Synthesis
12.8.2.1.1 Direct Foaming Technique
12.8.2.1.2 Replica Technique
12.8.2.1.3 Sacrificial Template Method
12.8.2.2 Polymeric Foam
12.8.2.2.1 Classification of Polymer Foams
12.8.2.2.2 Synthesis of Polymeric Foam
12.8.2.3 Application
12.9 Summary and Perspectives
References
Chapter 13: Biomaterials
13.1 Introduction
13.2 History of Biomaterials
13.3 The Body Environment
13.4 Governing Factors of Biomaterials
13.4.1 Biocompatibility
13.4.2 Wettability
13.4.3 Porosity
13.4.4 Stability
13.5 Classification of Biomaterials
13.5.1 Metallic Biomaterials
13.5.1.1 Materials in Metallic Biomaterials
13.5.1.2 Advantages/Disadvantages of Metallic Biomaterials
13.5.2 Ceramic Biomaterials
13.5.2.1 Materials in Ceramic Biomaterials
13.5.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ceramic Biomaterials
13.5.3 Polymeric Biomaterials
13.5.3.1 Materials in Polymeric Biomaterials
13.5.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantage of Polymeric Biomaterials
13.5.4 Biocomposite
13.5.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composite Biomaterials
13.5.5 Biologically Derived Biomaterials
13.5.5.1 Protein
13.5.5.2 Polysaccharide
13.6 Various Synthesis Techniques of Biomaterials
13.6.1 Solvent Casting
13.6.2 Particulate Leaching
13.6.3 Polymer Sponge Replication Method
13.6.4 Gas Foaming
13.6.5 Phase Separation
13.6.6 Freeze Drying
13.6.7 Electrodeposition
13.6.8 Rapid Prototyping
13.7 Surface Modification of Biomaterials
13.7.1 Biocompatible Coating
13.7.2 Surface Treatment
13.8 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Advanced Plastic Materials
14.1 Introduction to Advanced Plastic
14.2 High-Temperature Plastics
14.2.1 High-Temperature Thermoplastics Structures and Stability
14.2.2 High-Temperature Plastic Materials
14.2.3 Application of High-Temperature Plastic
14.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of High-Temperature Plastics Over Metals
14.3 Conducting Plastic
14.3.1 Historical Background
14.3.2 Industrial Market Status
14.3.3 Classification of Conducting Polymer
14.3.4 How Can Polymer Conduct Electricity?
14.3.5 Materials in Conducting Polymer
14.3.6 Preparation of Conducting Polymers
14.3.7 Applications of Conductive Polymer
14.4 Magnetic Plastic
14.4.1 Applications
14.5 Transparent Plastic
14.5.1 Major Factors of Transparency
14.5.2 Transparent Plastic Materials
14.5.3 Influence of Nano-metal Oxides in Polymer Transparency
14.5.4 Application
14.6 Bioplastic
14.6.1 Market Growth of Bioplastic
14.6.2 Biodegradation of Bioplastics
14.6.3 Types of Bioplastics
14.6.3.1 Polysaccharides Bioplastic
14.6.3.2 Proteins Bioplastic
14.6.3.3 Poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) Bioplastic
14.6.3.4 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) Bioplastic
14.6.3.5 Poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) Bioplastic
14.6.3.6 Poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT) Bioplastic
14.6.3.7 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) Bioplastic
14.6.3.8 Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) Bioplastic
14.6.3.9 Poly(caprolactone) (PCL) Bioplastic
14.6.3.10 Poly(butylene succinate-co-terephthalate) (PBST) Bioplastic
14.6.3.11 Poly(butylene adipate-terephthalate) (PBAT) Bioplastic
14.6.3.12 Poly(vinyl alcohol) Bioplastic
14.6.3.13 Bio-PET Bioplastic
14.6.3.14 Bio-PE Bioplastic
14.6.4 Impact of Bioplastic on the Environmental
14.6.5 Applications
14.7 Summary and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 15: Energy Harvesting and Storing Materials
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Types of Ambient Energy Sources
15.2.1 Photo-Energy Harvest
15.2.1.1 Basic principles of Solar Collector System
15.2.2 Thermal Energy Harvest
15.2.3 Mechanical Energy/Vibrational Energy Harvest
15.2.4 Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting
15.2.5 Electrostrictive Energy Harvesting
15.2.6 Magnetostrictive Energy Harvesters
15.2.7 Chemical Energy
15.2.8 Wind Energy Harvest
15.2.9 Tide Energy
15.2.9.1 Types of Tide Energy to Harvest
15.2.9.1.1 Tidal Stream Turbines
15.2.9.1.2 Archimedes Screws
15.2.9.1.3 Tidal Dams/Barrages
15.2.9.1.4 Floating Structures
15.2.9.1.5 Tidal Kites
15.2.9.1.6 Wave Riding Arms
15.2.9.1.7 Artificially Intelligent Turbines
15.2.9.2 Tidal Energy Generation
15.2.9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tidal Energy
15.3 Energy Storage
15.3.1 Types of Energy Storage
15.3.2 Batteries
15.3.2.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries
15.3.2.2 Lithium-Air Batteries
15.3.2.2.1 Acidic Electrolyte
15.3.2.2.2 Alkaline Aqueous Electrolyte
15.3.2.2.3 Aprotic Electrolyte
15.3.2.3 Lithium-Polymer Battery
15.3.2.4 Sodium-Ion Batteries
15.3.2.5 Magnesium Batteries
15.3.2.6 Zinc-Ion Batteries
15.3.2.7 Zinc-Air Batteries
15.3.2.8 K-Ion Batteries
15.3.2.9 Aluminum-Ion Batteries
15.3.2.10 Nickel-Bismuth Batteries
15.3.2.11 Organic Batteries
15.4 Summary
References
Chapter 16: Advanced Semiconductor/Conductor Materials
16.1 Supercapacitor
16.2 History of Supercapacitor
16.3 Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors
16.4 Work and Processing of Ultracapacitor
16.4.1 Basic Design
16.4.2 Storage Principles
16.4.3 Potential Distribution
16.4.4 Types of Supercapacitor
16.4.4.1 Electrostatic Double-layer Capacitance
16.4.4.2 Electrochemical Pseudocapacitance
16.4.4.3 Hybrid Capacitors
16.4.5 Electrodes Materials
16.4.5.1 Electrodes for EDLC
16.4.5.2 Electrodes for Pseudocapacitors
16.4.5.3 Electrodes for Hybrid Capacitors
16.4.6 Electrolytes
16.4.7 Separators
16.4.8 Collectors and Housing
16.4.9 Synthesis Approach for Electrode Materials
16.4.9.1 Solgel Method
16.4.9.2 Electro-polymerization/Electrodeposition
16.4.9.3 In Situ Polymerization
16.4.9.4 Direct Coating
16.4.9.5 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
16.4.9.6 Vacuum Filtration Technique
16.4.9.7 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Method
16.4.9.8 Coprecipitation Method
16.4.9.9 Dealloying Method
16.4.9.10 Other Synthesis Methods
16.4.10 Selection of Supercapacitor
16.4.11 Comparative analysis of Supercapacitor and Other Storage Devices
16.4.12 Applications
16.4.13 Advantages and Limitations of Supercapacitor
16.5 Superconducting Materials
16.5.1 History of Superconductor
16.5.2 Classification of Superconducting Materials
16.5.2.1 Type I Superconductors
16.5.2.2 Type II Superconductors
16.5.3 Applications of Superconductors
16.6 Advanced Semiconductor Materials
16.6.1 Classification of Semiconductor Materials
16.6.2 Semiconducting Devices
16.6.3 Alloy of II-VI Semiconductors with Magnetic Materials
16.6.4 Alloys of III-V Semiconductors with Ferromagnetic Properties
16.6.5 Polymer Semiconductor Crystals
16.6.6 Oxide Semiconductor
16.6.7 Semiconductor Materials for Magnetoelectronics at Room Temperature
16.6.8 Spintronics and Spintronic Semiconductor Materials
16.6.9 Application of Advanced Semiconducting Materials
16.7 High-mobility Organic Transistors
16.7.1 P-type Semiconductors
16.7.2 n-type Semiconductors
16.8 Summary
References
Chapter 17: Ultrafine-Grained Materials
17.1 What Is Ultrafine-Grained Materials
17.2 Historical Background to UFG Metals
17.3 Concept on Ultrafine-Grained Materials
17.4 Methods for Producing UFG Materials
17.4.1 Equal-Channel Angular Pressing
17.4.2 High-Pressure Torsion
17.4.3 Accumulative Roll Bonding
17.4.4 Friction Stir Processing (FSP)
17.4.5 Multi-Directional Forging
17.4.6 Cyclic Extrusion and Compression
17.4.7 Repetitive Corrugation and Straightening
17.4.8 Twist Extrusion
17.4.9 Machining
17.5 Role of Grain Size
17.6 Role of Grain Boundaries
17.7 Diffusion along Grain Boundaries
17.8 Influence of Second Phases
17.9 Effect of Internal Stress
17.10 Effect on Mechanical Behavior
17.11 Corrosion Behavior
17.12 Applications
17.13 Summary
References
Chapter 18: Alloys Based on Intermetallic Compounds
18.1 What Is an Intermetallic Alloy?
18.2 Structure of IMC
18.2.1 Hume-Rothery Phases
18.2.2 Frank-Kasper Phases
18.2.2.1 A15 Phase
18.2.2.2 Laves Phases
18.2.2.3 Sigma Phase
18.2.2.4 Mu Phase
18.2.3 Kurnakov Phases
18.2.4 Zintl Phases
18.2.5 Nowotny Phases
18.2.6 B2 Phase
18.2.7 L12 Phase
18.3 Structure Defects of IMC
18.3.1 Point Defects
18.3.2 Structure of Antiphase Boundaries and Domains
18.3.3 Superlattice Dislocations
18.4 Structure of Grain Boundaries and Brittleness of IMC
18.5 Optical Properties of Intermetallic Compound
18.6 Processing of IMC
18.7 Most Used Intermetallic Compounds
18.7.1 NiAl Intermetallics
18.7.2 FeAl Intermetallics
18.7.3 TiAl Intermetallics
18.7.4 CrAl Intermetallics
18.7.5 NiTi Intermetallics
18.7.6 Compounds Containing Lanthanide Metals and Yttrium
18.8 Application Fields of IMC Alloys
18.9 Summary
References
Chapter 19: Metal-Organic Frameworks
19.1 What Is Metal-Organic Framework
19.2 History and Background of MOF
19.3 Structure of MOF
19.4 Synthesis of MOF
19.4.1 Solvothermal or Hydrothermal Techniques
19.4.1.1 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis
19.4.1.2 Sonochemical Synthesis
19.4.1.3 Mechanochemical Synthesis
19.4.1.4 Electrochemical Synthesis
19.4.1.5 Surfactant-Assisted Synthesis
19.4.1.6 Microfluidic MOF Synthesis
19.5 Post-Synthetic Modification
19.6 Separation With MOF Materials
19.6.1 Adsorptive Separation
19.6.2 Membrane Separation
19.7 MOFs for Gas-Phase Adsorptive Separations
19.7.1 Selective Adsorptions and Separations of Gas
19.7.1.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
19.7.1.2 Oxygen (O2)
19.7.1.3 Hydrogen (H2)
19.7.1.4 Gaseous Olefin and Paraffin
19.7.1.5 Harmful and Unsafe Gases
19.7.1.6 Nobel Gases and Others
19.7.2 Selective Adsorptions and Separations of Chemical in Vapor Phase
19.7.2.1 Small Solvent Molecules
19.7.2.2 C8 Alkylaromatic Isomers
19.7.2.3 Aliphatic Isomers
19.7.2.4 Others
19.8 MOFs for Liquid-Phase Adsorptive Separations
19.8.1 Selective Adsorptions and Separations of Chemically Different Species
19.8.1.1 Organic Molecules with Different Properties/Functional Group
19.8.1.2 Organic Molecules With Different Shape and Size
19.8.1.3 Organosulfur Compound
19.8.1.4 Cations and Anions
19.8.2 Selective Adsorptions and Separations of Structural Isomer
19.8.2.1 Aromatic Compound
19.8.2.2 Aliphatic Compound
19.8.3 Selective Adsorptions and Separations of Stereoisomer
19.8.3.1 Enantiomers (Enantio-Separation)
19.8.3.2 Cis-Trans Isomer
19.9 MOFs Membrane-Based Separations
19.9.1 Separations with MoF Thin Film
19.9.1.1 H2 Separation
19.9.1.2 CO2 Separation
19.9.1.3 Other Gas and Vapor Separation
19.9.2 Separation with Mixed-Matrix MOF Membrane
19.9.2.1 Gas Separation
19.9.2.2 Liquid Separation
19.10 Potential Application of MOF
19.10.1 As a Catalyst
19.10.2 For Pollution Control
19.10.3 MOF Sensors
19.10.4 Energy Storage Materials
19.10.5 Biomedical Application
19.10.6 Other Applications
19.11 Summary
References
Chapter 20: Additive Manufacturing Materials
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Additive Manufacturing Market
20.3 Additive Manufacturing Advantages Over Conventional Manufacturing
20.4 Steps Involved in AM Processes
20.4.1 Step 1: Conceptualization and CAD Designing a 3D Model
20.4.2 Step 2: Conversion of Digital Design of STL File
20.4.3 Step 3: Slicing Using a 3D Printer Slicer Software and Manipulation of STL File
20.4.4 Step 4: Machine Parametric Setup
20.4.5 Step 5: Build
20.4.6 Step 6: Removal of Product
20.4.7 Step 7: Post-Processing
20.5 Classification of AM Processes
20.5.1 Material Extrusion
20.5.2 VAT Photopolymerization
20.5.3 Material Jetting
20.5.4 Powder Bed Fusion
20.5.5 Directed Energy Deposition
20.5.6 Binder Jetting
20.5.7 Sheet Lamination
20.6 Materials for AM Processes
20.6.1 Metal
20.6.2 Ceramic
20.6.3 Polymer
20.6.4 Composite
20.6.5 Intermetallic Compound
20.6.6 High Entropy Alloys and Bulk Metallic Glass
20.7 Processability in AM
20.8 4D Printing
20.9 5D Printing
20.10 Differences Between 3D, 4D, 5D Printing, and Other
20.11 Advantages and Limitations of Additive Manufacturing
20.12 Applications of AM
20.12.1 Aero Industries
20.12.2 Automobile
20.12.3 Electrical Industries
20.12.4 Biomedical Industries
20.12.5 Energy Harvesting Industries
20.12.6 Other Industries
20.13 Summary
References
Index