Lifelong learning assists us in having a successful career, promotes mental health, and helps us to adapt to the constant changes we experience. Rapid changes in our technological and social environment mean that we must learn more and learn faster than ever before. Given the importance of learning, it is essential to understand what we learn and how we learn. These learning elements and the relationships among them can best be understood through a theory of adult learning. The goal of this book is to propose such a theory. In this book, we present what we consider to be a holistic, logical, integrated, and readable summary of what adults learn and how adult learning takes place. Throughout this exposition, we include the contributions of many of the most impactful learning theorists and the latest empirical research on individual learning. We also highlight some of the intellectual debates that are still in progress in this rapidly evolving field. In simple terms, according to the theory, learning begins with an experience. This experience is followed by reflection and dialogue with others. These activities cause individuals to modify or add to what they already know and are cognitively able to do (ie, learning is occurring). While this logic is employed by a number of scholars, the book has a number of features that should make it a widely referenced source on adult learning theory. The book introduces the entire learning framework at the beginning and expands upon it in subsequent chapters. This framework, combined with clear definitions of terms and the use of examples while avoiding obscure language, serves to make the book very readable.
Author(s): Fengli Mu, James E. Hatch
Publisher: World Scientific Publishing
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 286
City: Singapore
Contents
About the Authors
Preface
Chapter 1 Learning and Theory
Introduction
What is Learning?
What is a Theory?
References
Chapter 2 General and Adult Learning Theories
General Learning Theories
Gestaltism
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Social Cognitivism
Humanism
Constructivism
Blending Learning Theories
Adult Learning Theories
Is It Possible to Construct an Adult Learning Theory?
Characteristics of Adult Learners
Selected Adult Learning Theories
Theories based on adult learner characteristics
Theories based on adults’ life situation
Theories based on changes in consciousness
Comprehensive learning theories
Gaps in Research on Adult Learning
Key Premises of Our Theory
Summary
Appendix A: On the Shoulders of Giants
Chris Argyris (1923–2013) and Donald Schon (1930–1997)
Albert Bandura (1925–2021)
David Boud
Stephen Brookfield (1947–)
Jeremy Bruner (1915–2016)
John Dewey (1859–1952)
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
Knud Illeris (1939–)
Malcolm Knowles (1913–1997)
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Jack Mezirow (1923–2014)
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917–2010)
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)
References
Chapter 3 Overview of the Theory
Introduction
Theory Development by Chapter
Summary
Chapter 4 The Nervous System
The Nervous System and the Brain
How the Nervous System Affects Learning
Nature versus nurture
The brain has neural plasticity
A number of factors affect brain development
Regions of the brain have specialized functions
The brain has extensive interconnectivity
Experiences are complex
Memory is a key function of the brain
Recovering memories is challenging
Operation of the brain is affected by emotions
The role of dopamine in motivation
We can’t measure what is learned by simply observing the brain
The brain is a social organ
Attempts are being made to link neuroscience and learning
The brain has two classes of systems for controlling behavior
The Developing Field of Educational Neuroscience
Neuromyths: Proceed with Caution
Summary
References
Chapter 5 The Mental Set
The Mind
Categorizing the Domains of the Mind
The Original Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Modified Bloom’s Taxonomy
Critiques of the Taxonomy
The Mental Set
Overview of the mental set
Summary
References
Chapter 6 The Cognitive Domain
Background
What is cognition?
What is metacognition?
The Cognitive Domain
Knowledge in the Cognitive Domain
Cognition (Thinking Ability)
Limitations of our Proposed List of Cognitive Processes
Lower Order and Higher Order (Critical) Thinking
The skills-based view
The ethics-based view
The civics-based view
Implications for our learning theory
How We Differ from Bloom’s Taxonomy
Threshold Concepts
Summary
References
Chapter 7 The Affective Domain
Components of the Affective Domain
Our Knowledge of Emotions
Individual Emotions
Motivation
Psychoanalytic approaches
Behaviorist approaches
Humanist approaches
Cognitive approaches
Combined cognitive and affective approaches
Goal setting and motivation
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ABOUT MOTIVATION AND LEARNING
Managing Emotions
Understanding One’s Emotional State and Its Source
Managing One’s Emotional State
Understanding the Emotions of Others and Their Source
Managing The Emotional Interface with Others
Personal emotional management in a social system
Managing the emotions of others
Relationships between the Cognitive and Affective Domains
Emotion and motivation to learn
Emotion and memory
Emotion and problem solving
Non-conscious aspects of emotions
Summary
References
Chapter 8 Personality Traits and Learning
The “Big Five” Personality Traits
Source of Personality Traits
Why are Personality Traits Important to Learning?
Self-perceptive traits
Summary
References
Chapter 9 Schemata and Mental Models
Schemata
The Evolution of the Idea of Schemata
The Gestalt movement
Bartlett and memory
Jean Piaget
Minsky’s frame theory
Rumelhart and Ortony
Anderson and Pearson
Our View of Schemata
What are schemata?
What is the role of schemata?
How are schemata activated?
How many schemata do we have?
How do schemata filter new information?
What is the relationship between schemata and memory?
What is the relationship between schemata and beliefs?
What types of schemata are there?
Do our schemata represent objective reality?
What are the implications of schemata for learning?
Are schemata shared between the self and others?
Do schemata change?
Can our schemata lead to negative results?
Are we conscious of our schemata
Values
Mental Models
What is a mental model?
Mental models and decision making
Mental models and underlying premises
The difficulty of consistently employing our mental models
Shared mental models
The Special Case of Scripts
Link between Cognitive Abilities and the Formation of Schemata and Mental Models
Summary
References
Chapter 10 Experience and Experiential Learning
Nature and Nurture
What is an Experience?
Experience defined
Solitary experiences
Interactive experiences
Vicarious experience?
Experiential learning
The importance of quality of experience
The importance of intent
Experience relates to both the cognitive and affective domains
Experience is a two-way street
Impact of experience on schemata and mental models
Experience and behaviorism
Experiential Learning Theories and Models
Dewey’s approach
Kolb’s experiential learning theory
The learning cycle
Learning styles
Critiques and extensions of Kolb’s theory
The debate over learning styles
Summary
References
Chapter 11 Reflection
Background
Where we are at this point
The role of reflection in learning theories
Ambiguities surrounding the nature of reflection
A More Concise Definition of Reflection
Relationship between Reflection and Critical Reflection
The Basic Steps in Reflection in our Theory
Develop awareness
What do we become aware of?
Why are some more aware than others?
Shared experiences may lead to different awareness
What stimulates awareness?
Limitations on awareness
Awareness can be enhanced
Non-conscious awareness
Awareness is associated with epistemic emotion
Analyze the experience
Comparison with the contents of the mental set
Revision of the mental set
Modification of actions
Other Insights into Reflection
Reflection is spontaneous
Reflection occurs during and after an experience
Mindfulness facilitates reflection
There are different levels of reflection
Reflection impacts both domains in the mental set
Reflection involves understanding the perspective of others
Learner characteristics influence the effectiveness of reflection
Reflection is tied to social and physiological changes
Reflection is related to unlearning
Clarification of Critical Theory Versus Critical Reflection
Reflection and Organizational Learning
Summary
References
Chapter 12 Dialogue
Ancient Scholars and Dialogue
What is Dialogue?
The Importance of Dialogue
What Dialogic Learning is Not
Participants in the Dialogue
Dialogue with the self
Two person dialogue
Group dialogue
Scholarly Views of Dialogue
Vygotsky and dialogue
Mezirow and dialogue
Other Ways of Looking at the Role of Dialogue
Factors Impacting Successful Dialogue
Dialogue and Written Communication
Summary
References
Chapter 13 Decision-Making
Placing This Chapter in Perspective
Behavioral and naturalistic decision theory
Cognition and metacognition
The importance of values
Identifying the Nature of the Required Decision
Problems versus decisions
Scoping the problem (sensemaking)
Selecting/Creating a Mental Model
Meta Decision-making
Selected decision processes
Expected utility decision process
Heuristic decision processes
Habitual decision processes
Random decision processes
Case based decision processes
Forecasting Potential Outcomes
Making and Implementing the Decision
Making a decision
Implementing the decision
Outcomes as an experience
Impact of Affect on Decision Making
Example: The effect of anger on decision-making
Effect of anger on sensemaking
Effect of anger on choice of mental model
Effect of anger on forecasting outcomes
Effect of anger on decision making and implementation
Group Decision Making in Organizations
Summary
References
Index
