5G and Satellite RF and Optical Integration

5G and Satellite RF and
Optical Integration
Contents
Preface
The Best of Three?
References
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
5G Radio Spectrum Including RF C Band: Link Budgets and Active and Passive Device Efficiency
1.1 New Radio: The FR 1 Bands
1.2 FR1 C Band
1.3 The FR2 Bands
1.4 Smart Phone RF Front Ends
1.5 5G Standards Including NTNs
1.6 What Bands and Technologies Are Supported in Present Smart Phones?
1.7 Can I Make a Phone Call on My 5G Satellite Phone?
1.8 Defining the S-RAN and the Role of the G-WON
1.9 Summary
Appendix 1A Resources and References
End Notes
Chapter 2
Optical C Band Link Budgets and Active and Passive Device Efficiency
2.1 The Best Way to Move Bits About?
2.2 Guided Versus Unguided Media
2.3 Impact of Device Efficiency on Guided and Unguided Media
2.4 Optical Modulation and Optical Band Options for Terrestrial Fiber and Free-Space Optical Transmission
2.5 Device Performance
2.5.1 Device Challenges for Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
2.5.2 Device Efficiency Comparisons
2.6 Modulation in Short, Medium, and Long-Haul Terrestrial Fiber
2.7 The Role of the Digital Signal Processor in RF and Optical Terrestrial and Space Networks and Legacy Copper
2.8 The Copper-to-Fiber Transition and the Passive Optical Network
2.9 PONs and the 5G RAN
2.9.1 PON Performance in the 5G RAN
2.9.2 Single-Mode and Multimode Fiber—Connector Loss and Other Losses
2.9.3 Differentiating Intrinsic and Extrinsic Losses
2.10 Active Optical Networks
2.11 The 5G C-RAN, D-RAN, S-RAN, Fronthaul, Midhaul, Backhaul, Long-Haul Links
2.12 Longhaul to Fronthaul
2.13 Impact of H-ARQ on Fronthaul Latency
2.14 Common Public Radio Interface and Enhanced CPRI Standards
2.14.1 Standards Groups
2.14.2 Fronthaul, Midhaul, and Integrated Access Backhaul (IAB)
2.14.3 Passive Optical, Active Optical, and Point-to-Point Wireless Integration
2.15 Point-to-Point Wireless V Band, E Band, W Band, and D Band
2.16 5G Networks in 2023—Optical and RF Backhaul Options
2.17 E Band Point to Point Radios
2.18 Copper Versus Fiber to the Desk and Fiber to the Sofa (5G TV)
2.19 Plastic Optical Fiber (POF)
2.19.1 POF in the Home
2.19.2 POF in Automotive and Medical Markets
2.20 Power Over Guided and Unguided Media
2.20.1 Power Over Copper and Cable and Fiber
2.20.2 Power Over Free Space—RF and Optical Systems
2.21 Subsea Optical C Band
2.22 Power Over Subsea Cable
2.23 RF and Optical Band Plan
2.24 Summary
End Notes
Additional References and Resources
Chapter 3
RF over Fiber
3.1 Is Analog the Answer?
3.2 Direct and Indirect Digital and Analog Modulation
3.3 The Role of Analog Optical Transport in 5G eMBB, URLLC Repeater Applications, and Band-Access Backhaul
3.4 The Role of Analog Optical Transport (AOT) in Network Vendor Interoperability Testing (NV-IOT) [8]
3.5 Enabling Technologies for Analog Optical Fiber Transport
3.6 In-Building Distributed Antenna Systems
3.6.1 Passive Analog RF over Coax or Optical over Fiber DAS
3.6.2 Active RF and Optical Digital DAS
3.6.3 Hybrid Optical Analog and Digital DAS as an Evolution of Hybrid Coax and Fiber Analog and Digital DAS
3.6.4 LAN over Fiber and 5G in Building Systems
3.7 Long-Distance RF Analog Transport over Analog Fiber
3.8 RF over Fiber for SATCOM
3.9 RF Overlay and Legacy RF over Glass Systems
3.10 Analog over Analog Versus Digital Analog
3.11 The Digital Dividend
3.12 Two Hundred Years of Telecom
3.13 Summary
Appendix 3A Vendors of Distributed Access Systems
Chapter 4
Space RF Link Budgets
4.1 Intersatellite RF Links (ISLs)—Introduction
4.2 RF Applications in Space—Past, Present, and Future and Their Impact on Link Design
4.3 Space Weather as a Component of an ISL and Space-to-Earth and Earth-to-Space Link Budget
4.4 The Math and Mechanics of ISL (in Standard SI Units)
4.4.1 Signal-to-Noise and Carrier-to-Noise
4.4.2 Free-Space Loss and the Frii’s Free-Space Path Loss Equation
4.4.3 Energy per Bit and Energy per Symbol
4.4.4 Noise as Seen by the Antenna
4.4.5 Reuse of 5G Beamforming AAUs in Space ISL and Other Novel Options
4.5 Power and Antenna Gain in Space Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
4.6 Filtering in Space
4.7 Phase Noise in Space
4.8 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) and Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion (DAC) in Space
4.9 ISL in Existing Space Deployments
4.9.1 TRDS
4.9.2 European Data Relay Service
4.10 ISLs—Differences Between Constellation ISL and Formation ISL
4.10.1 HawkEye360 and IcEye as two Examples of Formation-Flying RF Added Value
4.10.2 Iridium ISL and Formation Flying
4.11 Link Budgets, Lawyers, and WRC23
4.12 Summary—RF and Optical in Space
Appendix 4A
Resources
End Notes
Chapter 5
Optical ISLs—Link and Noise Budgets and Other Considerations
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Optical and RF Transceivers
5.1.2 Omnidirectional Light, Retroreflectors, and Simple Transceivers in Space
5.1.3 Multidirectional PTP for Collision Avoidance
5.1.4 Reuse of Terrestrial Optical Components in Space and HAPS
5.1.5 Coherent Detection Versus Direct Detection
5.1.6 Goodput and Channel-Coding Overheads in an OISL
5.1.7 Optical Beamwidth and Pointing Loss
5.1.8 RF Thermal Noise and Optical Quantum Noise as a Link Budget Limitation
5.2 Homodyne, Heterodyne, and Intradyne Receivers
5.3 Optical Conformance Testing—Noise Budgets, Signal to Noise, and Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio
5.4 Optical Heterodyne Noise and Gain Budgets
5.5 Pointing Loss and Vibration Loss
5.6 Vibration Loss, Jitter Loss, Pointing Loss, and Tracking Loss Noise Budgets
5.7 Iridium as an Example of How a LEO Satellite Moves Around in Space, What That Does to the (RF) Link Budget, and What This Means for OISL
5.8 Doppler Wavelength Shift and WDM OISL
5.9 Other Sources of Noise and Distortion and Unwanted Signal Energy
5.9.1 Microphony
5.9.2 Unwanted Signal Energy and the PAT Subsystem
5.9.3 Unwanted Light Energy in the Beacon Signal and Data Path
5.9.4 Mirror Resonance and Mirror Optical Quality
5.9.5 RX TX Light Path Mixing and Isolation
5.10 Diffraction Limits and the Strehl Ratio as a Measure of Optical System Quality
5.11 Laser Beam Quality and M-Squared (M2) Measurement
5.12 Circular and Elliptical Beams Laser Choice and Its Impact on Flux Density with VCSEL as an Example
5.13 LNAs and PAs in OISL
5.14 Filtering
5.15 Filtering Out Solar Noise
5.16 Digital Filtering
5.17 Phased-Array Optics
5.18 5G OISL and the OISL Vendor Supply Chain
5.19 Summary
End Notes
Chapter 6
Deep Space and Near Space
6.1 Heading for the Oort Clouds
6.2 5G Spectrum and Standards Summary
6.2.1 The Radio Astronomy Bands
6.2.2 Deep Space and Near Space ITU Definition
6.2.3 Red Shift and Blue Shift
6.2.4 Space Distance
6.2.5 Narrow Spectral Lines
6.2.6 Radio Frequencies and Bandwidths in Radio Astronomy
6.2.7 Radio Astronomy History and Present Systems—The Half-Minute Summary
6.2.8 Radio Astronomy and 5G Coexistence
6.2.9 Why Bother About Deep Space?
6.3 Deep Space from the Ground (RF)
6.3.1 The Radio Story—Radar
6.3.2 The Radio Story—The Atacama Large and Sub-Meter Array (ALMA) as an Example of RF and Optical Integration
6.3.3 The Radio Story–Square-Kilometer Array
6.4 Deep Space from the Ground Optical
6.4.1 Galileo and Monsieur Cassegrain—The Optical Story
6.4.2 Optical Measurements and Precision Cosmology
6.4.3 Optical Telescopes for Astronomy and Optical Ground Station Integration
6.4.4 Mount Paloma
6.4.5 The Large Binocular Telescope—Mount Graham International Observatory
6.5 Deep Space from Deep Space—The JWST
6.5.1 JWST arrives at L2
6.5.2 K-Band Space-to-Earth Radio Links from JWST
6.5.3 JWST and the Deep-Space Network
6.5.4 Physical Stability on Earth and in Space
6.6 Deep-Space and Near-Space Network Integration
6.6.1 The Deep-Space Difference
6.6.2 Seventy-Meter DSN Antennas
6.6.3 The 34m Subnetwork
6.7 Deep Space from the Moon and CISLunar Space
6.8 X-Rays from Deep Space
6.9 The Near-Space Network
6.9.1 What Is the Near-Space Network?
6.10 The A–Z of the NSN
6.11 Near Space from a Cold Place
6.12 Near-Space Optical Network
6.13 Deep-Space Data Rates, Latency, and CCSDS Standards
6.14 Space Optical and Radio Standards
6.15 Deep-Space Science
6.16 Summary
Appendix 6A Resources
End Notes
Chapter 7
Ground Station and Earth Station Hardware and Software—Challenges of Supporting LEO, MEO, and GSO systems
7.1 The Story So Far
7.2 The Hyper-Linked Hyperdata Center
7.3 Hyperdata Centers and Points of Presence
7.4 Gateways, Ground Stations, Earth Stations, and Teleports
7.5 Mr. Brunel, Big Ships, Landing Stations, and Long-Distance Subsea Cables
7.6 Subsea to Terrestrial Connectivity—Scale Issues and Politics, with Africa as an Example
7.7 Fiji to Tonga—The Cost of Cable Failure
7.8 Subsea Cable Economics—Optical C Band under the Sea
7.9 From Station Clocks to Space Clocks
7.10 Timing and Earth Station Scheduling
7.11 Time and Positioning Accuracy
7.12 5G at Sea
7.12.1 Ultra-Large Container Ships
7.12.2 Safety at Sea and Automatic Identification Systems
7.12.3 Container Ships, Cruise Ships, and Earth Stations
7.12.4 5G at Sea and Maritime Port Integration
7.12.5 Sea IOT
7.12.6 Optical ESIM—C Band at Sea
7.13 Longwave to Light—Marconi and Musk
7.14 The Optical Outback
7.15 Quantum Earth Stations
7.16 Optical Computing and Optical Storage
7.17 Ground Versus Space Complexity
7.18 Summary
Appendix 7A Resources—Timing and Synchronization
End Notes
Chapter 8
Low-Altitude Platforms
8.1 Whatever-the-Weather Wireless
8.2 Regulation and ATC
8.3 Regulation of Drones
8.4 Drone Airframe Options, Size, and Wi-Fi Data Rates
8.5 Flying Cars and 5G Urban Air Mobility
8.6 War Drones for War Zones
8.7 Height, Altitude, Radio Altimeters, C-Band Protection Ratios, and In-Flight Connectivity
8.8 Precision Flying Using MEO GPS and LEO Time and Freqency References
8.9 Opportunistic Navigation
8.10 Summary—Beyond-Line-of-Site (BLOS) Navigation, Communications, and Control
8.11 Large and Lost at Sea Malaysian Airlines MH 370
8.12 Aviation Radio Spectrum
8.12.1 Band Fundamentals
8.12.2 Model-Aircraft Radio Control
8.12.3 The Aviation Bands
8.12.4 First-Person-View Drone Frequencies in the ISM Bands
8.13 WRC 23
8.14 Longwave, Medium-Wave, Shortwave, and VHF Radio Systems at WRC-23
8.15 In-Flight Connectivity
8.16 5G ATG IFC
8.17 SIMS, Multi-SIMS, and ESIMS and the 5G ATG Link Budget
8.18 Connecting from Above Using Optimized Single-Band Radios as an Alternative to 5G ATG
8.19 Optical Versus RF from 0 to 100 km—Shannon and RF and Optical Link Budgets
8.19.1 High-Power High-Tower Cellular Repurposed for 5G ATG
8.19.2 Market Scale and the Shannon Limit
8.19.3 Aircraft Size and the Shannon Limit
8.19.4 The 33-Layer Atmospheric Model
8.19.5 Optical Scattering and Adaptive Optics—Greenwood, Mie, and Fraunhofer
8.20 Optical Control of Drones and UAVs
8.21 Plane Spotting from Space
8.22 Summary
End Notes
Chapter 9 High-Altitude Platforms
9.1 5G HAPS—The Basics
9.2 HAPS Alliance, the GSMA, and ITU HAPS Spectrum Allocations
9.2.1 L-Band and S-Band HAPS Mobile Spectrum
9.2.2 Other HAPS Mobile Spectrum in Low Band (UHF) and Mid Band (L Band and S Band)
9.2.3 HAPS Fixed Service Spectrum
9.2.4 V Band, W Band, and E Band for HAPS
9.3 Platforms and Power
9.4 Hydrogen Versus Helium for HAPS
9.5 RF Versus Optical
End Notes
Chapter 10
RF and Optical Technology Enablers
10.1 The Five Gs—RF Technology Time Scales
10.2 The Ten Gs—Optical Technology Time Scales
10.3 Electronics Versus Photonics
10.4 From 2D to 5D—Optical Computers and Photonic Storage
10.5 Summary—Light at the End of a Tunnel
End Notes
Chapter 11
Technology Economics of RF and Fiber for Terrestrial and Space Networks
11.1 Link Budget Economics
11.2 Moore’s Law and Our Law—the Law of the Dollar and the Decibel and the Impact of the Link Budget on RF and Optical Network Economics
11.3 Space Value Versus Terrestrial Value
11.4 Space Costs
11.5 Space Spectrum
11.6 Space Standards
11.7 6G and Satellite RF and Optical Spectrum Standards and Scale
End Notes
About the Author
Index